The Arabn influence on Western European cooking

The importance of the spice trade to commercial development in Europe in the later middle ages has long been recognized, although the reasons for the demand for exotic condiments from the East have not been much considered. There seems little evidence to support the idea that spices were used either to mask the taste of rotting or “vulgar” food or as preservatives. There are sources, however, which do provide a basis for the unriddling of the taste for spices. Contained within the recipes of the period is evidence that the style of cooking was adopted from the Arabs, and that the heavy use of spices was but one of a cluster of characteristics of Arab food replicated in Europe. In order to establish the similarities between European and Arabic medieval cookery, a sample of French, Italian, Spanish, Flemish, English, and German texts is drawn upon and compared with the main features of the several Arabic works which have been translated into Spanish, French and English. Underlying the upheaval in the cooking of the élite in Europe from about 1300 was a changed attitude toward eating which was stimulated by the place of food in Moslem theology as represented in depictions of the Garden of Delights, a concept which is explored in its rather wide currency in Europe. I postulate that, intrigued with the sensual pleasures of eating as portrayed in the Garden, Europe began to associate luxurious dining with the food of the Arabs, and thus the passage of what was a strange and alien cuisine was facilitated.     

基督教对西方文化的影响

特定社会环境中的宗教不仅影响其道德观、哲学思考,也对社会行为和语言文化产生着深远的影响。东西方主流宗教对语言、社会行为、文学、艺术等渗透影响,基督教文化与英语社会发展之间有内在联系。宗教在跨文化领域方面起着重要作用,了解宗教与文化之间的联系有助于更好地促进跨文化交际。     

西方学术界关于欧洲绝对主义研究述要

西方学者认为 ,绝对主义是由封建等级君主制向现代立宪君主制转变的过渡形态。它源于封建等级君主制 ,又具有鲜明的特征。它体现君权压倒了封建贵族的特权 ,是启蒙思想与君主专权的混合物。它与东方专制主义也有着根本区别。     

阿拉伯哲学对西欧文艺复联的影响

阿拉伯哲学将古希腊亚里士多德的学说、新柏拉图主义和传入的其他哲学思想与自身传统融会贯通,形成富于自身特色的阿拉伯——伊斯兰哲学体系。中世纪晚期,阿拉伯哲学经由西班牙和西西里岛这两个主要途径,通过翻译运动回哺西欧,对西欧文艺复兴运动的兴起和深化产生重要影响。     

16～17世纪西欧社会的"猎巫"

16～17世纪巫术案件在西欧大量出现,期间大量的巫师被投进监狱,其中很多人被烧死在火刑柱上。16～17世纪时的西欧进入了转型时期,当时的西欧社会正处于极度的无序之中,而对"猎巫"的研究可以加深我们对西欧社会转型问题的理解。     

The Western European witch-hunt in the 16th and 17th centuries

The European witch-trials became numerous in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. A large number of witches were imprisoned and many of them were executed at the stake. The ubiquitous social strain brought on the witch-hunt, and the witch became the scapegoat. Study on the witch-hunt provides a special perspective on the transition of Western Europe in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.     

16-17世纪西欧社会的"猎巫"

The European witch-trials became numerous in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. A large number of witches were imprisoned and many of them were executed at the stake. The ubiquitous social strain brought on the witch-hunt, and the witch became the scapegoat. Study on the witch-hunt provides a special perspective on the transition of Western Europe in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. __________ Translated from Shixue Yuekan 史学月刊 (Journal of Historical Science), 2007, (8): 64–71     

Changing patterns of landownership in nineteenth-century Palestine: The European influence

Long-term changes in landownership patterns and their implications for settlement have been neglected by geographers, both in theoretical and empirical studies. Studies in this field relating to the Middle East are of a very general nature, and are not based on detailed examination of regional trends, their components, and geographic variables. In Israel, most of the published literature on this issue has dealt with the process of land purchase by Jews and has focused mainly on the period of the British Mandate (1918–1948). Misleading statements abound and the roots of the processes which evolved in nineteenth-century Palestine are poorly understood.The middle of the nineteenth century in Palestine marked the end of a quarter of a millenium of neglect and decline. Around 1800 Palestine was a backward province of the Ottoman empire, largely rural and sparsely populated. Both rural and urban economies were traditional and poor. From about 1850, a process of change began which led to a resurgence and development of the country.An important determinant in this process was an increase of European influence within the Ottoman empire in general and Palestine in particular. This paper (part of a broader study on landownership), will discuss the background, characteristics and motivations of Europeans who purchased land in Palestine during the period, their financial sources, their locational preferences and opportunities. The diverse influences of these land transactions on urban and rural development are considered. These processes ar illustrated by two case studies.     

European influence on Russian neurology in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries

In this study we consider the development of clinical neurology in the eighteenth and the nineteenth centuries focusing on European influence on Russian medicine. Russian physicians readily accepted newly described clinical signs, theories, and classification of nervous diseases designed in Europe. This influence initiated neurology's separation from general medicine and its transformation into a new clinical discipline. In Russia this happened already in the 1860s, decades before the similar trend in Europe. The Russian example is nearly unknown in the general history of neurology. It illustrates the relationships between physiology and practical neurology at the moment of establishment of the new discipline. It also shows that the Russian physicians of the time readily accepted European medical knowledge putting it immediately into medical practice and education.     

西欧骑士制度的社会影响

骑士制度是西欧中世纪社会的重要内容,它对中世纪社会的经济、政治、军事、生活方式、思想文化等都产生了深刻影响。由于它的存在,西欧中世纪社会具有许多与之相关的特征。     

Economic theory and European society: The influence of J.M. Keynes1

The ideas of economists and political philosophers, both when they are right and when they are wrong, are more powerful than is commonly understood. Indeed the world is ruled by little else. Practical men, who believe themselves to be quite exempt from any intellectual influences, are usually the slaves of some defunct economist. Madmen in authority, who hear voices in the air, are distilling their frenzy from some academic scribbler of a few years back.¹We have changed, by insensible degrees, our philosophy of economic life, our notions of what is reasonable and what is tolerable; and we have done this without changing our technique or our copybook maxims. Hence our tears and troubles.²     

法律身份、人口比例和收入水平——论中世纪西欧工匠的几个问题

中世纪的西欧工匠是一个非常重要的劳动者群体。他们包括自由人和不自由人,后者在中世纪较早摆脱了奴役,成为半自由人和自由人;他们的人口比例不断上升,中世纪中晚期城乡工匠大约占到总人口的10%—20%,平均在15%左右,构成非农业人口的主体;他们主要以工业生产为生,随着中世纪中期和晚期工业品价格和工资从缓慢增长到快速上升,工匠收入的购买力也相应经历了从下降到提高的过程,15世纪时工匠的生活水平得到明显改善。     

交融与创生：西欧文明的三个来源

人类文明的多样性,不仅呈现在当代,同样呈现在过去的历史长河里,因此探究历史上不同文明的特殊性非常重要。西欧文明始于公元5世纪,初步成型于11—15世纪,源于古代日耳曼传统、古典希腊罗马文明和基督教不同质的文化。日耳曼人的马尔克村社制度是欧洲文明的胚胎;古典文明,尤其罗马法促使中世纪个人权利概念逐渐形成并进入公法领域,成为法治社会的广泛基础;基督教的政治哲学及政治斗争结束了神圣王权时代,有助于建构起上层政治框架。经过几个世纪的发展,在一定社会条件下,三要素熔为一炉。逐渐生成西欧文明的雏形。很明显,西欧文明是次生的、混合的文明,其创生过程也是不同文明的融合和嬗变过程;16世纪后衍生为资本主义文明,后者表现了不凡的创造力,冲击了整个人类社会,同时也显现了与生俱来的局限性。     

汉代田庄与西欧庄园比较研究

作为封建生产的一种重要组成形式,不论是西欧庄园,还是汉代田庄,都有其鲜明的地方性和多样性。比较而言,西欧庄园和汉代田庄主要在以下几个方面存在着差异：大地产形成的途径及其私有权程度不同;采取庄园式生产组织形式的动因不同;庄园内部生产组织、地租形态、政治权力不同。由此可以得知,封建庄园是以大地产形成为基础,以占有一定数量的人身依附劳动为前提而产生的,是在生产力落后、商品货币经济不发达的条件下形成的,从当时的历史实际情况来看,它的存在,具有很大的合理性。