The technology of jades excavated at the Western Zhou,Jin Marquis cemetery,Tianma-Qucun,Beizhao, Shanxi province: recognition of tools and techniques

This paper is concerned with the technology of a small but representative sample of thirty nephrite jades from the burial assemblages of the Jin Marquisate excavated at Tianma-Qucun, Beizhao, Shanxi province, north-central China. The jades date mainly from two Bronze Age cultures, the Western Zhou dynasty (c. 1050–771 BC) and the previous Shang dynasty (c. 1600–c. 1050 BC). They include unfinished and finished carvings. The carvings were examined at Shanxi Provincial Institute of Archaeology, Houma: following an optical survey of the tool marks, detailed silicone moulds were made from twelve jades bearing evidence of working techniques. The moulds were examined by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) at the British Museum, London. Consideration of several characteristics of the moulded features for comparison with moulded experimental standards provided evidence for the tools employed for several stages of working. Extensive use was made of non-rotary rigid saws and thicker files for shaping many parts of the jades, and pointed tools for incising pieces. Use was also made of rotary solid drills for working narrow perforations for openwork and the suspension of jades, and broader tubular drills. Although no evidence of non-rotary string saws, rotary circular saws or smaller incising wheels was seen on the jades, there was evidence for the use of rotary lathes, on which jades were mounted for shaping.     

EVALUATION OF INCLUSIONS IN MORTARS OF DIFFERENT HISTORICAL PERIODS FROM GREEK MONUMENTS*

Mortars were among the first materials used for construction purposes, even from prehistoric times. Their systematic study reveals that they often contained inclusions, which were introduced with the main constituents or added as improvers of mortars' properties. The present study focuses on recording the types of inclusions found in more than 1000 mortar samples of different types (structural, renders and floor mosaic substrates), taken from various monuments of Greece. This extensive study proves that inclusions occur in all types of mortars of all periods and can be distinguished into two categories: those that are added deliberately to mortars to meet specific needs of improvement of their final properties, such as fibrous materials (wood chips, straw); and inclusions that are incorporated into the mass as impurities in the raw materials (lime and clay lumps, shells and probably charcoal particles).     

Celtic vitrified forts: Implications of a chemical-petrological study of glasses and source rocks

The term “vitrified forts” refers to remnants of stony fortifications of early Iron Age in which constituent rock fragments and boulders have been melted and/or welded together by heat, apparently in situ. The methods used are a matter of controversy, and even the question whether the firing was constructive or destructive is disputed. In this study we present bulk analyses of some twenty source rocks and of fifty glasses (in petrographic thin sections) from eleven sites and attempt to relate these data to the processes (and purposes) producing the observed sintering, welding and melting. The results are consistent with progressive partial, sometimes total, melting of the rocks used. In agreement with most previous investigators we conclude that no exotic rocks (although limited amounts of clays or organic debris cannot be excluded) were used as flux nor were easily fusible materials selected. On the other hand, simply burning an ordinary (of the later murus gallicus type) timber-laced wall cannot account for the evidence of strongly reducing conditions and sustained high temperatures, probably for days and in some cases well above 1000 °C. Rather, the fires seem to have been contained, perhaps by filling the space between the rocks in the timber framework with soil, clay and combustible materials, e.g. peat, brushwood and domestic debris. We cannot conclude whether the firing was accidental, or set by enemies or by the builders. In any case, the builders appear to have used more sophisticated techniques than previously believed to ensure the durability of their constructions.     

Computerizing The Manuscript Census–A Comment

Abstract. After-death inventories are an invaluable source for historians of early modern Europe, with their trove of evidence being exploited for more applications all the time. They are fundamental to the emerging fields of the history of consumer culture, the arrangement of household space, the history of the so-called private life, and material life more generally. They also contribute to our understanding of the distribution of wealth and patterns of wealth holding. The author documents a data-collection project based on over one thousand after-death inventories drawn up by the Municipal Orphanage in Amsterdam between the 1740s and 1780s. Given the wide patronage of this institution among the citizen working poor and middling shopkeepers, and the gender-neutral rules for inclusion, this collection of inventories represents an unusually broad sample along three different axes: gender, marital status, and household wealth. The source is described and the data files documented so that they may be used by scholars widely.     

Finding resolution for the Howiesons Poort through the microscope: micro-residue analysis of segments from Sibudu Cave,South Africa

In this paper I present the results of a micro-residue analysis of stone segments, the type fossils of the Howiesons Poort technocomplex in South Africa, with an age of more than 60 ka at Sibudu Cave, KwaZulu-Natal. Fifty-three segments were systematically analysed and 1826 organic micro-residue occurrences were documented on the sample. The distribution patterns of micro-residues and other use-traces are interpreted in terms of hafting and function. It is shown that most of the tools were indeed hafted and most were probably used as inserts for hunting weapons. There is evidence for differences and changes over time in haft materials and hafting configurations of the segments. The study demonstrates how functional studies could improve our understanding of change and variability in human behaviour during the Middle Stone Age, a period that used to be portrayed as static or slow changing.     

Late Pleistocene coastal environment of the Southern Cape Province of South Africa: Micromammals from klasies river mouth

A sequence of samples of micromammalian remains from Klasies River Mouth on the south coast of South Africa provides evidence of vegetational and climatic change during the Late Pleistocene. The evidence suggests the presence of a vegetational mosaic similar to that of the present but with relatively more open vegetation at the time the central part of the sequence was being deposited than was the case at the beginning or the end. Fluctuations occurred in general climatic conditions, as indicated by the Shannon—Wiener index of diversity, but conditions appear to have remained relatively moderate throughout with no evidence of glacial or interglacial maxima. Changes in sea level are probably also reflected in changed proportions of various species of small mammal. The site has yet to be dated conclusively but the micro-mammalian data tend to support other lines of evidence which suggest that this sequence of deposits was laid down during isotope stage 5, probably substages 5d—a. Human response to the challenge of changing conditions can be shown to lag behind those changes as recorded by micromammals.     

A geochemical study of Roman to early Byzantine Glass from Sagalassos,South-west Turkey

The finding of glass chunks together with fuel ash slag and kiln fragments related to glass processing strongly suggests local secondary production (working) of glass at Sagalassos (SW Turkey) from imperial to early Byzantine times. Chemical evidence shows that different silica raw materials were used in imperial and early Byzantine times for blue and green glass found locally. Colourless glass shows no clear difference in chemical composition and hence in silica raw materials between late Roman and early Byzantine times. Locally found early Byzantine yellow-green glass and chunks correspond to the previously defined Byzantine HIMT glass type. The chemical composition of the glass chunks found, identical to that of the contemporary glass of the same colour, strongly indicates that these chunks were used for the manufacture of early Byzantine green, colourless and yellow-green glass at Sagalassos.The homogenous lead isotopic composition of the chronological groups of blue glass, suggests the use of two distinct but homogenous silica raw materials for the manufacture of this glass. In view of this homogeneity, it is likely that contemporary blue glass was produced at a single location. The linear trend of the heterogeneous lead isotopic composition of the green and colourless glass is a strong indication of recycling effects in the glass composition. The end members of this trend are formed by the isotopic composition of the blue glass on the one hand, and of the yellow-green (HIMT) glass on the other hand. The heterogeneous lead isotopic composition of the yellow-green glass at Sagalassos is probably the result of recycling of this glass, reflecting mixtures of the original lead isotopic signatures of the broken glass and the original HIMT glass chunks.It should be noted that the two main raw materials for primary glass production (silica and soda) were available on the territory of Sagalassos. Moreover, the lead isotopic composition of quartz pebbles sampled from the artisanal quarter of Sagalassos, is similar to that of the local blue glass.     

An Osteological Study of Trophy Heads: Unveiling the Headhunting Practice in Borneo

Taking, modifying and displaying human body parts as trophies have been observed in several human groups since prehistoric times. Although there are many skeletal collections that present evidence for this practice, the existence of both skeletal material and written records referring to the same group is quite rare. Nevertheless, this is a case of 112 human skeletal remains collected by Charles Hose in Borneo in the late 19th century, which represents a unique opportunity to understand the vanished headhunting tradition and warfare practice in this area, as well as to compare the written records with the bioarchaeological evidence. Although Hose claims that all individuals collected by him were beheaded, our study shows that only 50.5% of the studied material show clear osteological signs of decapitation. Other practices which were part of the ritual of headhunting described by Hose could be observed, like widening of foramen magnum, burning of skulls, mandible tied to the cranium with a strip of rattan or cotton, as well as drilled perforations to suspend skulls in longhouses. Adult females and non‐adults comprised more than one third of the total number where sex and age could be determined, showing that males were not the sole targets for trophy heads. Overall, this study on the trophy skulls from Borneo is valuable as it combines and compares ethnographic accounts and osteological data to provide us with a broader scenario of a vanished practice. It draws attention to some aspects that should be taken into account when working exclusively with either written records or skeletal materials, as both present limitations. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Historical materials from the post-Cistercian abbey in Kamieniec Ząbkowicki (southwestern Poland)—application of mineralogical methods for identification of source of raw materials

In this paper, we use a set of methods applied for geosciences to reveal the provenance of raw materials and historical aspects of technology of lime production from the post-Cistercian church (southwestern Poland). Two types of building stones (mica schists and sandstones) and two groups of mortars, related with two different construction phases (Gothic and Baroque), were used for construction of the church façade. Principal difference between binding materials involves the presence of Mg-rich phase within Baroque mortars as a result of carbonation of a dolomitic lime whereas Gothic mortars are devoid of hydromagnesite. Mineral composition of the fillers of both mortars is similar, suggesting the same origin represented by local eluvium. Binders of studied mortars are composed of calcite and/or hydromagnesite and rich in lime lumps suggesting incomplete calcination. Studied mortars are weathered which is manifested by presence of gypsum. However, there is no evidence of commonly occurring Mg-rich secondary phases within Baroque mortar probably due to higher solubility of these salts comparing to gypsum. Mineralogical study combined with archeological and geological information enables us to indicate potential sources for the studied building materials. Metamorphic rocks, prevailing within the façade, come from abandoned quarries located in the closest vicinity of the church, whereas sandstones were acquired from the deposits located at a distance of tens of kilometers from the Kamieniec Z?bkowicki. Raw materials used for lime burning were gathered from Przeworno (Gothic mortars) and Z?oty Stok area (Baroque mortars) located approximately 25–30 and 12 km from studied church.     

Development and application of methods used to source prehistoric Southwestern maize: a review

Archaeological cobs free of mineral contaminants should be used to source the soils in which they were grown. Mineral contaminants often contain much higher concentrations of metals than vegetal materials and can alter a cob’s apparent metal and heavy-isotope content. Cleaning a cob via immersion in an acid solution for more than a few minutes will result in the incongruent and sometimes complete leaching of metals, including strontium (Sr), from the cob. When using ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr to determine the location of potential agriculture fields, it is best to either integrate several depth-integrated soil samples or to integrate several vegetation samples from individual fields. Biologically labile Sr in semi-arid Southwestern soils largely originates from eolian source or sources and usually is not derived from underlying bedrock. Existing Sr-isotope data indicate that archaeological cobs from Aztec Ruins came from either the Mesa Verde-McElmo Dome or Totah areas, that Pueblo Bonito and Chetro Ketl cobs, from Chaco Canyon that predate A.D. 1130, probably came from the Rio Chaco corridor, and that cobs from Chaco Canyon, that postdate A.D. 1130, probably came from either the Totah or Zuni areas.     

Pre-Roman coloured glass beads from the Iberian Peninsula: a chemico-physical characterisation study

This paper reports results derived from a chemical and microstructural characterisation study undertaken on a representative sample set of coloured glass beads that recent archaeological fieldwork carried out in the second century BC Celtiberian necropolis of Numantia (Upper Duero Valley, Spain) has provided. The main objectives of the research were to understand the production technology and provide some insights into their probable provenance. In addition, corrosion and decay processes were also assessed to determine the influence of the cremation ritual within the beads structure. The resulting data suggest that both soda-lime-silicate and, probably, alumino-silicate glasses were produced in the making of these glassy materials, using some transition metal oxides as chromophores or colouring agents. The compositional evidence gathered also suggests that Numantian glass beads were the outcome of trade or exchange practices rather than locally produced.     

Logboats from Europe and the CD-ROM, or a solution to the endless search for documents (2000 edition)

Bibliographic data capture of logboats from Europe is available as a database which includes more than 6000 pictures or files (corresponding to the same number of A4 pages): as the result of the processing of 700 works dealing with 2400 logboats; 6500 links were established between those logboats and bibliographical references.     

Preliminary U-series and Thermoluminescence dating of excavated deposits in Liang Bua sub-chamber,Flores, Indonesia

We report the results of a test excavation of deposits in a limestone cave sub-chamber located beneath the main chamber of Liang Bua, Flores, Indonesia; the discovery site of the small hominin species, Homo floresiensis. Well-preserved remains of extinct Pleistocene fauna and stone artefacts have previously been identified on the surface of a sediment cone within the sub-chamber. Our excavation of the deposits, at the base of the sediment cone in the sub-chamber (to 130 cm depth) yielded only a few fragmentary bones of extant fauna. Uranium/Thorium (U-series or U/Th) dating of soda straw stalactites excavated from 20 to 130 cm in depth demonstrates that the excavated sediments were deposited during the Holocene. Red Thermoluminescence (TL) dating of the sediments at the base of the excavation (130 cm depth) indicates these sediments were last exposed to sunlight at 84 ± 15 ka (thousand years), similar to red TL ages of cave sediments from the main chamber. Together, these results indicate that the surface faunal remains, which are morphologically analogous to Pleistocene finds from the main chamber excavations, were transported to the sub-chamber relatively recently from the main chamber of Liang Bua and probably originated from conglomerate deposits at the rear of the cave and from deposits around the front entrance. There is no evidence for hominin occupation of the sub-chamber, instead it seems to have acted as a sink for cultural materials and fossil remains transported from the surface via sinkholes. Despite the small number of finds from the test excavation, it is possible that more extensive excavations may yield additional transported cultural and faunal evidence at greater depths.     

Soils and vegetation history of abandoned enclosures in the New Forest,Hampshire, England

Soil profiles buried beneath earth banks of five abandoned enclosures, ranging in age from late Bronze Age to early 19th century AD, were compared with unburied profiles inside and outside the enclosures. Soil particle size analyses and micromorphological studies show that the banks were constructed of mixed topsoil and subsoil from adjacent ditches; on some banks the soil has begun to podzolize. At the two oldest sites (Dark Hat and Long Slade Bottom, which are late Bronze or Iron Age) the soils within the enclosures were homogenized, probably by occasional cultivation for cereal growing. At Dark Hat an ironpan has developed on the upper surface of a layer compacted by smearing during cultivation. The later enclosures, at Burley Moor (Anglo-Saxon), East Boldre (mediaeval) and Hatchet Gate (early 19th century AD), were probably used entirely for pasture. Pollen assemblages from the buried soils and overlying banks, and chemical comparisons of the buried soils with profiles inside and outside the enclosures together provide new evidence for a history of soil and vegetation changes over the past 2500–3500 years. Heathland vegetation associated with podzolic soils existed on plateau gravels before the late Bronze Age, but on other parent materials heath vegetation and acidic soils with incipient podzolization appeared only in later periods. The present patchy vegetation pattern of mainly deciduous woodland with open areas of ferny grassland and heath seems to have persisted since before the late Bronze Age. The most obvious human influences on the vegetation during the last 2000 years have been periodic temporary use of open areas and woodland clearings for protected grazing.     

STONES FROM MEDIEVAL GLASSMAKING: A SUITABLE WASTE PRODUCT FOR RECONSTRUCTING AN EARLY STAGE OF THE MELTING PROCESS IN THE MT LECCO GLASS FACTORY*

The Mt Lecco glass factory was one of the most important production centres in Liguria (Italy) during the 14th and 15th centuries. Archaeological evidence indicates that the whole production cycle took place here. During the glassworking process, production defects such as ‘stones’ were identified and discarded. Stones are partially melted, glass‐coated relics of raw materials or fragments of crucible. The study of the microtexture of stones together with microprobe analyses of phases provides a key for understanding the glassmaking procedure carried out in the Mt Lecco glass factory. The melting rate can be inferred from the compositional variability of glass, which suggests fractional melting of the batch. Glass composition indicates that the Mt Lecco production was a mixed‐alkali one, probably made of quartz‐bearing material as vitrifying agents, plant ashes as fluxing agents and dolomitic limestones as stabilizing agents.     

The distribution and sources of archaeological obsidian from southern France

One-hundred-and-sixty-two pieces of obsidian have been found at 50 archaeological localities in southern France. The distribution is concentrated in the Rhône Valley, but includes sites in Drôme and in southwest France. The obsidian is mainly from sites of the Chassey culture (4th and 3rd millennium Neolithic), but there is one Impressed Ware site (Early Neolithic) and four Copper Age sites with obsidian. Only a small proportion of the obsidian (31 pieces) consists of waste pieces, providing little evidence for on-site working. 10 pieces of obsidian were analysed by instrumental neutron activation analysis to determine their geological provenance. Seven pieces proved to be from the Sardinian SA source, one from Lipari, and two from Pantelleria. Chronologically there is some division between sources used: all three pieces of Liparian obsidian so far identified from southern France, in this work and by earlier researchers, belong to Early Chassey contexts, and the two Pantellerian pieces are from a Copper Age dolmen. Sardinian and Liparian obsidian probably reached France by way of northern Italy. where both types were in use in contemporary cultures. The two Pantellerian pieces are evidence of some type of contact between France and the southern Mediterranean in the Copper Age, despite earlier suggestions of a very restricted distribution for the Pantellerian source. Obsidian was probably imported to southern France with other goods since the small amounts used would not warrant a separate trading network for obsidian alone.     

THE EARLIEST USE OF CORUNDUM AND DIAMOND,IN PREHISTORIC CHINA*

The majority of prehistoric lithic artefacts were fashioned from rocks and minerals no harder than quartz, and there is no prehistoric evidence for the working of harder materials, such as corundum and diamond. The earliest physical evidence for the use of corundum (ruby, sapphire) is thought to be the abrasive grit recovered from Bronze Age Minoan quartz beads (c. 1700–1500 bc ), while diamond is thought to have been used no earlier than 500 bc , in India. Here we show that corundum was worked c. 4000–3500 bc during the Neolithic period in China, in the form of polished axes from the Liangzhu and Sanxingcun cultures. We also present physical evidence that later Liangzhu axes (c. 2500 bc ), made from the same previously undescribed rock whose most abundant component is corundum, were polished to a mirror‐like finish with a diamond abrasive. Our findings, which are the first to support the use of corundum and diamond in a prehistoric context, may also help to explain the trademark feature of the Neolithic in China, vast quantities of finely polished nephrite jade artefacts.     

Earliest Evidence for the Ivory Trade in Southern Africa: Isotopic and ZooMS Analysis of Seventh–Tenth Century <Emphasis Type="SmallCaps">ad</Emphasis> Ivory from KwaZulu-Natal

KwaGandaganda, Ndondondwane and Wosi were major Early Farming Community settlements in what is today the KwaZulu-Natal province of South Africa. These sites have yielded, among other remains, abundant evidence of ivory and ivory working dating to the seventh–tenth centuries ad, pre-dating by approximately 200 years the better-known ivory artefacts from sites in the Limpopo River Valley and surrounding regions. We report the results of carbon, nitrogen and strontium isotope analysis to explore the origins and procurement of this ivory, in combination with Zooarchaeology by Mass Spectrometry (ZooMS) to identify the species of animals from which it was derived. All of the ivory studied using ZooMS was elephant, despite the presence of hippopotamus remains on all three sites. Some ivory was probably obtained from elephant herds that lived close to the sites, in the densely wooded river valleys favoured by both elephants and early farmers. Other material came from savannah environments further afield. Ivory found at these three sites was drawn from different catchments, implying a degree of landscape/resource partitioning even at this early stage. These communities clearly invested substantial effort in obtaining ivory from across the region, which speaks to the importance of this commodity in the economy of the time. We suggest that some ivory items were for local use, but that some may have been intended for more distant markets via Indian Ocean trade.     

Lead pigments and related tools at Akrotiri,Thera, Greece. Provenance and application techniques

This paper refers to an investigation of finds that are associated with the raw materials and tools for the preparation or use of lead pigments at Akrotiri on Thera, Greece, during the Early, Middle and Late Cycladic Bronze Age (c. 3000–1600 BC). For the detection and the preliminary characterisation of remains of pigments that were found on stone tools, the in situ application of X-Ray Fluorescence spectroscopy proved to be invaluable. In order to identify the chemical composition of the pigments and to investigate their provenance from a geological perspective, quantitative X-Ray Diffraction analysis was conducted. A thorough visual macro and microscopic examination of the morphology of the materials permitted the determination of physical features (colour, homogeneity, grain size) as indicators of their nature or degree of processing. Based on the results of these analyses, the traces of lead oxides that were detected on the stone tools are associated with specific collections of litharge items discovered at the settlement of Akrotiri, and probably provide evidence of their earliest use in preparing pigments.     

Middle-Class Ideologies and American Respectability: Archaeology and the Irish Immigrant Experience

This study illustrates the materialization of identity shifts through refined ceramic and glass forms recovered from working class Irish immigrant and Irish-American communities. The sites used in this article were chosen because of their spatio-temporal compatibility covering dynamic periods of Irish identity in the United States. Historians argue that 1880 marks the beginning of an identity shift from Irish immigrant to Irish-American. This research attempts to provide the necessary materials to begin a discourse bringing together material and historical evidence illuminating the conflict between competing ideologies of respectability and changing conceptions of Irish identity in America.