IBERIAN CERAMIC PRODUCTION FROM BASTI (BAZA,SPAIN): FIRST GEOCHEMICAL,MINERALOGICAL AND TEXTURAL CHARACTERIZATION

Ceramic fragments from the archaeological excavation of the Iberian–Roman city of Basti (Spain) were studied from a geochemical point of view and by applying a statistical tool to X‐ray fluorescence data to discover similarities between ceramic materials. The analysis of these samples was completed by performing a mineralogical analysis, textural observation, and by characterizing the porous system and the colour of the pieces. Our results enabled us to identify the source area of the clayey raw material in the surroundings of Basti and to estimate the firing temperature of the ceramics. Differences in the chemistry were confirmed by characteristics of the pastes and the mineralogical composition of the pieces. Some samples show black cores, which would suggest the presence of organic matter in the raw material and fast firing of the ceramics. The main types of temper were quartz grains and gneiss fragments, although carbonate grains were also identified. Our evidence suggests that most of the samples were well fired. New silicate phases were found to be present in several samples. The mercury intrusion porosimetry verified and confirmed the firing temperature of non‐carbonated samples. Colorimetry showed that the colour of the ceramics varied according to the amount of CaO that they contained.     

ASSESSING NATURAL CLAY COMPOSITION IN THE VALLEY OF OAXACA AS A BASIS FOR CERAMIC PROVENANCE STUDIES

The Oaxaca Clay Survey was initiated to provide baseline data on clay composition within the Valley of Oaxaca, Mexico, to assist in provenance determination of prehistoric ceramics. Natural clays were sampled from 135 locations throughout the valley, and analysed using INAA in combination with ceramic petrography. Observed geographical trends in trace‐element and mineralogical composition confirm that while parent material (surficial geology) strongly affects clay composition, a continuum of variation exists within the valley. The study develops and tests a continuous spatial model of clay composition that provides greater resolution in ceramic sourcing than bedrock alone. By establishing a regional framework for Oaxaca Valley clays, the survey will support significant advances in our understanding of pottery production and exchange within the valley, and provide a more robust means for monitoring exchange between the valley and neighbouring regions.     

A COMPARATIVE ELECTRON MICROPROBE STUDY OF LERNA III AND IV CERAMICS AND LOCAL CLAY-RICH SEDIMENTS*

This study uses electron microprobe analysis of ceramic artefacts and local day-rich sediments and lithics to help address questions concerning the nature of the cultural change implied by ceramics from Lerna III and IV. It redresses the previous lack of a comparative collection of clay-rich sediments that adequately represents the local variation in clay and temper for the area surrounding Lerna. The resulting comparisons indicate that although they produced stylistically different ceramics, potters from both Lenta phases acquired their clays from the local Lerna area.     

MINERO‐PETROGRAPHIC AND GEOCHEMICAL CHARACTERIZATION OF ‘GRECO SCRITTO’ MARBLE FROM CAP DE GARDE,NEAR HIPPO REGIUS (ANNABA,ALGERIA)*

This work presents the results of the first mineralogical, petrographical and geochemical characterization of the marble quarried from the Cap de Garde headland, not far from Annaba (Algeria). This site is traditionally held by archaeologists to be the main source of supply of the so‐called ‘greco scritto’ marble, which was much used by the Romans for architectural and decorative–ornamental purposes, locally from the first century bc , and in Rome and central and southern Italy from the late Flavian period until the fourth century ad . The databank relating to the quarried material, created here for the first time, is used to establish the origin of ‘greco scritto’ found in six important Roman cities of North Africa: Hippo Regius and Cuicul (Djemila), in Algeria; Volubilis, in Morocco; Cyrene, in Libya; and Carthage and Utica in Tunisia. The results of this archaeometric study support the hypothesis (already put forward by authors) that the ‘greco scritto’used in the Roman Mediterranean originated from different sites, and suggest the existence of a number of North African quarries, also in the vicinity of Annaba.     

NEUTRON ACTIVATION ANALYSIS OF BIRD BOWLS AND RELATED ARCHAIC CERAMICS FROM MILETUS

In this paper we present the results of a chemical investigation by neutron activation analysis of sherds of different kinds of bird kotylai, bird bowls and related wares excavated in Kalabaktepe, a hill of the ancient city of Miletus. A new archaeological classification of this well-known group of Archaic ceramics of eastern Greece is presented. A number of kiln wasters of misfired vessels from Kalabaktepe revealed a characteristic local pattern. This pattern helped to clarify the provenance of some of the bird bowls classified archaeologically as of orientalizing type: they have been made in Miletus. But bird kotylai and bird bowls in the 'standard fabric’as well as other archaeologically related vessels show a different chemical pattern of unknown provenance.     

TIME‐OF‐FLIGHT NEUTRON DIFFRACTION CHARACTERIZATION OF CERAMIC FINDINGS FROM SOUTHERN AND WESTERN SICILY*

We present the results of a study that is part of a wider research programme regarding knowledge of the initial living phases of Sicilian agricultural and pastoral society. Three sets of ceramic samples were analysed through time‐of‐flight neutron diffraction (TOF‐ND) to derive information about the composition of the clay and the manufacturing techniques. The first two sets of sherds came from an excavation in Licata, close to Agrigento, and are composed of findings dated around the third century bc , while the third set was of samples from prehistoric sites located in the northwestern part of Sicily. Measurements were performed to obtain a quantitative identification of the mineralogical composition of the samples in a totally non‐destructive way. Hints about manufacturing techniques and firing temperatures are derived to provide information on provenance and production processes of the objects.     

NEW PETROGRAPHIC EVIDENCE PERTAINING TO CERAMIC PRODUCTION AND IMPORTATION AT THE OLMEC SITE OF SAN LORENZO*

This paper reports the results of petrographic analyses of 41 new pottery thin sections from San Lorenzo. The resulting compositional data provide an important new context for evaluating the disputed status of carved vessels previously identified as imports to the site. By comparing local and Oaxaca highlands pottery, the disputed vessels are shown to be (a) compositionally distinct from San Lorenzo pottery and (b) similar to highland pottery. San Lorenzo was not just an exporter but also an importer of pottery vessels, a finding relevant to consideration of San Lorenzo's role in the production and exchange of ceramics in Early Formative Mesoamerica.     

PANTELLERIAN WARE: A COMPREHENSIVE ARCHAEOMETRIC REVIEW*

Pantellerian ware is a Late Roman cooking ware whose production centre was established on the island of Pantelleria by the pioneering research of Fulford and Peacock almost 20 years ago ( Peacock 1982 ; Fulford and Peacock 1984 ). Archaeological and archaeometric studies carried out by the authors of the present contribution during the past four years have aimed to fully characterize this ceramic class. Recurrent ceramic forms, their distribution over time and space, their petrographic characteristics and their chemical identity, as well as possible raw materials and their technological properties, were considered. The present paper is a comprehensive review of this archaeometric work and aims to establish a ‘reference group’. Using a representative number of samples of Pantellerian ware that were recently discovered in the island through archaeological field surveys or surface and submarine excavations, it was possible to characterize in detail the compositional variability of this ware in terms of chemistry and petrography. Furthermore, the physical properties of this ceramic type have been defined in order to better understand its performance characteristics, mainly in response to induced thermal stress. In the meantime, the experimental mixing and tempering of locally sampled raw materials have shed light on the ancient manufacturing process and have led to an approximation of the original paste.     

ACKNOWLEDGING FIFTY YEARS OF NEUTRON ACTIVATION ANALYSIS IN ARCHAEOLOGY

Neutron activation analysis has been an important analytical technique for chemical characterization studies of archaeological materials since 1957, and remains one of the best analytical approaches for bulk chemical characterization of archaeological ceramics and other materials. This paper introduces a series of reports that document the history of NAA applied to archaeological materials.     

A GEOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE ON THE USE OF Pb ISOTOPES IN ARCHAEOMETRY

Lead isotope ratios in ore bodies and magmatic rocks depend in a complex way on several a priori independent parameters, including the geological age of the tectonic province in which the ores and magmas formed and its U/Pb (μ) and Th/U (κ) ratios, two very sensitive parameters characteristic of metal sources. All these parameters are entangled in hard‐to‐read Pb isotopic ratios. With respect to the commonly used fingerprinting techniques, which rely on the comparison of raw isotope ratios, the main motivation for the present work is to provide a method for making geologically and geochemically educated guesses about metal provenance even in the absence of isotopic data on reference ores. It shows how to unscramble a geological model age and μ and κ information from isotopic measurements. This approach brings to light a new organization of the Pb isotope database and an untapped wealth of information that can be used for provenance studies and other archaeometric purposes. We provide expressions with which to calculate these parameters and, using literature data, demonstrate how Pb isotopes in ores and magmas define clear zones in the silver‐rich provinces of the Central Andes. We further show how the geological model age and μ and κ values fingerprint production areas in 16th–18th century silver coins minted in Mexico and South America. Finally, we use Pb isotopes to illustrate how the Reconquista of the Emirate of Granada (1482–91) and the seizure of the Betic silver mines are reflected in the silver coins of the Catholic Monarchs.     

The Characterization of Biologically Available Strontium Isotope Ratios for the Study of Prehistoric Migration

Strontium isotope analysis of bone and tooth enamel from prehistoric human skeletons is an important new technique used to address questions regarding migration. Two problems arise in such investigations: (1) levels of strontium isotope ratios in local bedrock, soil, water, plants and animals are variable; and (2) a range of values in human bone and enamel data make it difficult to distinguish some migrants from locals. Analysis of the bones of small animals provides a robust measure of local strontium isotope ratios and a reliable, if conservative, means for determining confidence limits for distinguishing migrants. Data from various geographical areas are presented here in a discussion of variability in strontium isotope values. Examples are provided using modern and prehistoric materials. We conclude with the recommendation that studies involving strontium isotope analysis should incorporate small animal samples for comparative purposes whenever possible.     

HANNIBAL'S INVASION ROUTE: AN AGE‐OLD QUESTION REVISITED WITHIN A GEOARCHAEOLOGICAL AND PALAEOBOTANICAL CONTEXT

The point of Hannibal's departure from New Carthage in Iberia, in 218 bc , and his subsequent march along the Mediterranean coast to the Pyrénées and on to the Rhône Basin, has been reconstructed by ancient historians with considerable accuracy. The latter 400‐km phase through the Alps, however, has been the subject of some controversy as to whether the Punic Army followed a southern versus a northern invasion route, or some intermediate variant. What is certain from the ancient texts is that Hannibal was trapped by Gallic tribes in a large defile—a gorge large enough to hold the entire army—along the approach to the high col of passage on to the Po River Plains of northern Italia. The entrapment involved an enfilade attack planned by an unknown Gallic commander, a military operation that nearly decimated the Punic Army. Previous arguments as to the location of the defile have hinged on inconclusive topographic, geological and geomorphic assessments. New data from palaeobotanical reconstruction of the northern approach route show the Gorges de la Bourne and the Gorge du Bréda, astride the Isère River, to have been forest covered during the invasion, which would have made the Gallic assault impossible. The existing evidence argues for a southern route, the approach through the narrow defile of the Combe de Queyras, with passage over the Col de la Traversette, as argued by Sir Gavin de Beer nearly a half century ago. Narrowing the approach route focuses on sites worth geoarchaeological exploration.     

PROVENANCE OF MEDIEVAL PIETRA OLLARE ARTEFACTS FOUND IN ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITES OF CENTRAL–EASTERN ITALY: INSIGHTS INTO THE ALPINE SOAPSTONE TRADE*

Medieval archaeological findings made of pietra ollare (basic and ultrabasic metamorphic rocks belonging to the greenschist facies) and coming from central–eastern Italy have been characterized through a petrological study (modal mineralogy, whole‐rock geochemistry, XRD and SEM–EDS analyses). The pietra ollare artefacts considered in this work consist of fine‐grained, grey to pale‐grey, magnesite‐bearing talc‐schists (i.e., soapstones). In order to determine their production centres, Alpine soapstones quarried in ancient times were selected on the basis of their mineralogical and textural compatibility with the archaeological findings. The mineralogy and chemistry (major and trace elements) contributed to establishing the ancient quarries of the Valchiavenna (central Alps) as the probable provenance area. This archaeometric investigation proves that Alpine artefacts made of pietra ollare spread to the south of the Po Plain during the Middle Ages. It can be inferred that the Alpine soapstone trade towards the Marche and Abruzzo regions was addressed through the main waterways: Lake Como, the Adda and Po Rivers and finally the Adriatic Sea.     

PROVENANCE STUDIES OF CHALCOLITHIC OBSIDIAN ARTEFACTS FROM NEAR LAKE URMIA, NORTHWESTERN IRAN USING WDXRF ANALYSIS

In 2005–2006 we initiated a major archaeological survey and chemical characterization study to investigate the long-term use of obsidian along the eastern shores of Lake Urmia, northwestern Iran. Previous research in the area suggested that almost all archaeological obsidian found in this area originated from the Nemrut Daĝ source located in the Lake Van region of Anatolia (Turkey). More recent research on obsidian artefacts from the Lake Urmia region has identified a significant number of obsidian artefacts with compositions different from the sources near Lake Van. This suggests that the obsidian artefacts are from a yet to be identified geological source, but possibly one that was not too distant. In order to advance our knowledge of Iranian obsidians and eventually refine provenance criteria we analysed obsidian from 22 Chalcolithic sites and some source areas. The compositions of both obsidian source samples and artefacts were determined using wave length dispersive X-ray fluorescence spectrometry (WDXRF). This paper presents results from the trace elemental analysis of both geological and archaeological obsidians, providing important new data concerning the diachronic relationship between lithic technology and raw material in the north-west of Iran.     

EPR OF Mn2+ IMPURITIES IN CALCITE: A DETAILED STUDY PERTINENT TO MARBLE PROVENANCE DETERMINATION*

We demonstrate that the electron paramagnetic resonance spectrum of Mn²⁺ impurities in calcite, and therefore also in marble, may be accurately reproduced by a traditional spin Hamiltonian formalism. The success of such a treatment, however, very much depends on the spin Hamiltonian parameters having the correct signs as well as magnitudes. We present data that determine the sign of the axial anisotropy parameter and thereby facilitate future quantum mechanical characterizations of marble electron paramagnetic resonance spectra that supplement provenance determination.