A Comparative Study on the Compressive Strength of Bricks from Different Historical Periods

The aim of this article is to present the results of compressive strength tests for bricks from different historical periods. The studies were conducted on hand-molded and mechanically formed bricks. The bricks that were used for the studies came from historical structures from the center of the royal city of Crakow. Compressive strength was determined on rectangular prisms and on cylinders cut out from bricks in various directions—anisotropy and shape effects were then analyzed.

?The basic aim of the conducted studies was to estimate the possibility of carrying out the strength tests on relatively small samples and re-calculating these results on normalized brick strength determined according to EN772–1. Based on the tests results, a range of correlation coefficient values for cylinder samples with diameters of 30 mm and 50 mm was given. It was indicated that for the tested historical bricks characterized by significant material non-homogeneity within the element and sensitivity to damages while cutting out the samples, correlation coefficients are higher than for bricks used contemporarily.

?The results of these studies are presented alongside the findings from existing studies on the compressive strength of bricks.     

A Place to Rest Your (Burnt) Bones? Mortuary Houses in Early Anglo-Saxon England

This article presents a fresh interpretation of square and rectangular mortuary structures found in association with deposits of cremated material and cremation burials in a range of early Anglo-Saxon (fifth-/sixth-century AD) cemeteries across southern and eastern England. Responding to a recent argument that they could be traces of pyre structures, a range of ethnographic analogies are drawn upon, and the full-range of archaeological evidence is synthesized, to re-affirm and extend their interpretation as unburned mortuary structures. Three interleaving significances are proposed: (i) demarcating the burial place of specific individuals or groups from the rest of the cemetery population, (ii) operating as ‘columbaria’ for the above-ground storage of the cremated dead (i.e. not just to demarcate cremation burials), and (iii) providing key nodes of commemoration between funerals as the structures were built, used, repaired and eventually decayed within cemeteries. The article proposes that timber ‘mortuary houses’ reveal that groups in early Anglo-Saxon England perceived their cemeteries in relation to contemporary settlement architectures, with some groups constructing and maintaining miniaturized canopied buildings to store and display the cremated remains of the dead.     

Identification of Suitable Limit States from Nonlinear Dynamic Analyses of Masonry Structures

Performance-based earthquake engineering, developed over the last decades for the design and assessment of other structures, can also be applied for masonry structures if the particularities of masonry are incorporated into the procedure. According to this methodology, structural performance can be assessed according to damage states which are identified through displacement/damage indicators. While various methods for the identification of limit states from the results of nonlinear static analyses exist, the identification of damage states from the results of nonlinear dynamic analyses is still uncertain. This article investigates a number of criteria allowing to identify the attainment of significant limit states from the results of time history analyses, in terms of appropriately identified response quantities. These criteria are applied to five building prototypes and their results are compared. A comparison with the limit states derived from nonlinear static analyses is also made.     

Numerical Analysis of RC Bridge Piers with Rectangular Hollow Cross-section Retrofitted with FRP Jackets

The research presented in this article deals with the seismic retrofit of bridge piers with rectangular hollow cross-section using fiber-reinforced polymer (FRP) jackets. A two-level numerical approach that combines finite element method (FEM) analyses and fiber modeling is proposed. The FEM is used to study the effect of FRP jackets on the properties of concrete. The analyses show that the existing empirical laws for FRP-confined concrete are not suitable for piers with hollow cross-section, as the effect of confinement is not uniform within the cross-section and the stress–strain curves show softening after peak strength. Fiber modeling is used to study the global behavior of reinforced concrete piers with rectangular hollow cross-section wrapped with FRP jackets. To account for confinement, the properties of the concrete fibers are modified according to the results of the FEM analyses. The proposed method is validated against experimental results and used for an extensive parametric study. It is found that the effectiveness of jacketing is conditioned by the axial load, longitudinal reinforcement, and jacket dimensions. An empirical design equation is formulated on the basis of the numerical analyses.     

Coalition Structures and Policy Change in a Consensus Democracy

This paper studies the relation between coalition structures in policy processes and policy change. While different factors such as policy images, learning processes, external events, or venue shopping are important to explain policy change, coalition structures within policy processes are often neglected. However, policy change happens as a result of negotiations and coordination among coalitions within policy processes. The paper analyzes how conflict, collaboration, and power relations among coalitions of actors influence policy change in an institutional context of a consensus democracy. Empirically, I rely on a Qualitative Comparative Analysis to conduct a cross‐sector comparison of the 11 most important policy processes in Switzerland between 2001 and 2006. Coalition structures with low conflict and strong collaboration among coalitions as well as structures with dominant coalitions and weak collaboration both facilitate major policy change. Competing coalitions that are separated by strong conflict but still collaborate strongly produce policy outputs that are close to the status quo.     

The impact of centralisation upon geographical variations in the provision of aged care services: a comparison of outcomes in Melbourne and Adelaide

This paper examines the extent to which centralisation affects service delivery through a comparison of geographical variations in community-based services for the aged in the cities of Melbourne and Adelaide. The first part outlines the administrative structures in the two cities. This is followed by a comparison of geographical variations in the provision of meals-on-wheels services and residential accommodation within the cities. The final part considers the implications of the results for our understanding of the influence of centralisation upon service provision in Australian cities.     

Seismic Behavior Prediction of Flanged Unreinforced Masonry (FURM) Walls

In most available studies, unreinforced masonry (URM) walls are idealized as rectangular sections, while in reality walls have effective sectional shapes such as C, I, T, and L. In this article, the results of experimental and analytical assessment of flange effects on the behavior of I- and C-shaped URM walls are reported. Four clay brick walls at half scale were tested. Two specimens were designed with I- and C-shaped sections, and for comparison, two additional specimens were designed without flanges. The tests showed that under constant axial load the strength of the I-shaped wall increases, but that of the C-shaped wall decreases, because of out-of-plane distortion effects. Despite the loss of strength, both flanged walls indicated almost similar initial stiffness, deformation capacity, and mode of failure in comparison with walls without flanges. A mixed-mode analytical model is proposed to predict the lateral force displacement curve of flanged URM (FURM) walls. The proposed analytical model is based on section analysis of the walls and shows good agreement with previous experimental results.     

Technological continuity in Early Iron Age bronze metallurgy at the South-Western Iberian Peninsula – a sight from Castro dos Ratinhos

A collection of 54 bronze artefacts recovered from the inland settlement of Castro dos Ratinhos (Portugal) and belonging mainly to the 9th–8th centuries BC, was studied by the use of non-invasive and micro analytical techniques. EDXRF, Micro-EDXRF, SEM-EDS and Optical Microscopy were used to determine the alloy composition and to identify the different thermo mechanical operations applied in the production of the artefacts. Results show that the collection is entirely composed of good quality binary bronzes (with an average tin content of 10.1 ± 2.5%). Alloys with higher tin contents were kept in as-cast condition and used in the making of ornaments, while tools were often finished with forging and annealing operations. Despite the existence of some Orientalising features in the Castro dos Ratinhos, e.g. rectangular habitat structures, wheel-turned ware and amphorae, the exclusive use of binary alloys with a narrow range of tin content seems to be associated with an indigenous metallurgical tradition inherited from the Late Bronze Age. This may indicate that the Phoenician interaction within the inland indigenous communities was a slow and selective process, probably dependant on the social-economic and cultural development of local communities.     

A Dark-Age Settlements at Maxey,Northants

SUMMARY

A dark-age settlement was discovered at Maxey during gravel-quarrying and partly excavated before destruction to reveal at least seven rectangular buildings ranging from 30 ft. to 50 ft. in length and 16 ft. to 20 ft. in width. They were all of post-hole construction but there were instances of post-holes in trenches, post-holes joined by wall-trenches, and, once, a central beam-slot. Near by were smaller ancillary structures including pits surrounded by post-holes, perhaps storage-huts. Open hearths, pits of various types and boundary-ditches were also found. The pottery was of an unusual type, but the small finds suggest that both it and the settlement are of the middle Saxon period.     

VULNERABILITY OF ELASTOMERIC BEARING ISOLATED BUILDINGS AND THEIR EQUIPMENT

In this paper, we compare the vulnerability of isolated and conventional structures as well as equipment when uncertainty on the excitation and on some of the structural properties is considered. This comparison is performed, mainly, with a series of Monte Carlo simulations. The results clearly show the higher sensitivity of isolated structures and their equipment when submitted to statistically reasonable excitations that are different from those used for their design. This fact is recognised by some, but not all, earthquake regulations, mainly, by considering lower behaviour factors for isolated structures than for conventional ones. Although isolated structures designed according to these recommendations (e.g. FEMA 368) exhibit tow damage less frequently than conventional structures, the probability of failure is similar for both types of structure.     

Interpreting the Neolithic: The Monuments of North Yorkshire

Recent interpretations of the British Neolithic either consider the shared beliefs of this period or the short-term engagement of individuals with their material surroundings. This paper argues that, while both approaches provide exciting agenda, they fail to address the marked regional differences which exist within the range of monuments, and indeed have actually shifted Neolithic studies away from a consideration of such variability. A comparison of the monuments from North Yorkshire with similar evidence elsewhere in lowland England illustrates the value of an approach which concentrates on long-term trends in the continuity or transformation of social structures. It is proposed that the absence of causewayed enclosures and the early development of single-grave burials demonstrate a distinct social trajectory which continued with the construction of the later henges. The monuments are therefore seen to reflect long-term continuities in the social history of North Yorkshire.     

The Early Bronze Age settlement of Fidvár,Vráble (Slovakia): reconstructing prehistoric settlement patterns using portable XRF

This paper presents first results of chemical analyses of sediment samples from the Early Bronze Age (EBA) settlement Fidvár near Vráble (Slovakia). Large-scale geomagnetic prospection revealed detailed architectural remains of a fortified settlement. Other structures such as an earthwork of the linear pottery culture and at least two Roman march camps were found too. An Auger programme provided sediment samples of different depths, A) from an EBA house and the outer fortification ditch, B) from a potential metal workshop area as indicated by surface finds, and C) from an area located in the settlement's centre. The samples were analysed by a portable X-ray fluorescence (pXRF) spectrometer in order to investigate the vertical and horizontal distribution of chemical signatures. The comparison of geophysical data and three-dimensional chemical patterns gives us the opportunity to determine the human impact and to reconstruct activity patterns. The potentials and limits in the application of pXRF in archaeological soil chemical surveys are evaluated by systematic comparisons with high resolution laboratory measurements, including atomic absorption spectrometry (AAS) and inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometry (ICP-OES). The pXRF analyses can be reproduced well and show a good accuracy. Whilst (p)XRF analyses reflect the total composition of archaeological soil samples, the results of the AAS and ICP-OES analyses are fundamentally influenced by the acid digestion or extraction methods used. The pXRF analyses of the Vráble soils showed typical patterns of human occupation. For example, there are strong positive correlations between phosphorous, strontium and calcium. Phosphorous shows an enrichment in pathways and the fortification ditch. It is less strongly enriched within the sediments of house structures. Similar results apply to calcium and strontium distribution. But compared to the respective concentrations in sediment samples from the ditch they show a considerably higher variation in samples associated with house structures; that is, individual samples of sediments from house structures contained high concentrations of both, calcium and strontium. The deposits of an area that according to surface finds was thought to represent a potential metal workshop did not show indicative chemical signatures. Targeted excavations confirmed the absence of such as workshop. Finally it was shown that the refill history of the innermost fortification ditch (sample area D) and the overall cultural occupation sequence at the site correlate strongly with the chemical signatures of the respective ditch profile. The systematic variation of key elements along the profile opens up an entirely new perspective for interpreting the site's history. Overall, the study shows the great potential of pXRF as valuable part of an archaeological survey toolkit.     

Patterns of pastoralism in later Bronze Age Kazakhstan: new evidence from faunal and lipid residue analyses

Current research themes relating to prehistoric Central Asian pastoralism are discussed, and the Neolithic to Bronze archaeological sequence in Kazakhstan is briefly outlined. The results of new faunal analyses of six later Bronze Age sites in Central and Northern Kazakhstan are presented. These studies are based upon the analysis of 63,529 bone fragments, of which 27,023 were identifiable to species and element. These assemblages are compared with 16 other sites in Central and Northern Kazakhstan, and the Trans-Ural region. The herd structures at the final Bronze Age site of Kent are discussed in detail. Analyses of absorbed lipid residues from four sites are also presented. In total, 140 pottery sherds were analysed, of which 73 provided sufficient residues for stable isotope ratio determinations. It is concluded that species proportions are highly variable regionally. Cattle are most prevalent in the forest steppe zone, whilst caprines become more common in semi-arid steppe regions. Proportions of horse are particularly variable, even within environmentally similar areas. Lipid residue results indicate the high prevalence of ruminant dairy products in pottery vessels, whilst faunal data from Kent suggests that cattle husbandry might have been particularly focussed on milk, in comparison with sheep and goats. The significance of horses within prehistoric pastoralism is discussed.     

Probabilistic Calibration and Experimental Validation of the Seismic Design Criteria for One-Story Concrete Frames

This article investigates the seismic performance of one-story reinforced concrete structures for industrial buildings. To this aim, the seismic response of two structural prototypes, a cast-in-situ monolithic frame and a precast hinged frame, is compared for four different levels of translatory stiffness and seismic capacity. For these structures an incremental nonlinear dynamic analysis is performed within a Monte Carlo probabilistic simulation. The results obtained from the probabilistic analysis prove that precast structures have the same seismic capacity of the corresponding cast-in-situ structures and confirm the overall goodness of the design criteria proposed by Eurocode 8, even if a noteworthy dependency of the actual structural behavior from the prescribed response spectrum is pointed out.

The experimental verification of these theoretical results is searched for by means of pseudodynamic tests on full-scale structures. The results of these tests confirm the overall equivalence of the seismic behavior of precast and cast-in-situ structures. Moreover, two additional prototypes have been designed to investigate the seismic behavior of precast structures with roof elements placed side by side. The results of these further tests show that an effective horizontal diaphragm action can be activated even if the roof elements are not connected among them, and confirm the expected good seismic performance of these precast systems. Finally, the results of the experimental tests are compared with those obtained from nonlinear structural analyses. The good agreement between numerical and experimental results confirms the accuracy of the theoretical model and, with it, the results of the probabilistic investigation.     

Nonlinear Modeling and Mitigation of Seismic Pounding between R/C Frame Buildings

A multi-link finite element contact model reproducing Jankowski’s nonlinear viscoelastic relationships is devised and implemented for a time-history analysis of seismic pounding. The mechanical and algorithmic parameters are calibrated with a numerical test case study, represented by two single-story R/C frames. A real case study, concerning two adjacent buildings representative of a stock of R/C multi-story frame structures with insufficient separation joints at rest, is then examined. A damped interconnection-based mitigation solution consisting in linking the two structures with fluid-viscous dissipaters is proposed. The benefits of this retrofit strategy are discussed by comparison with the response in original conditions.     

Shape Reproducibility and architectural symmetry during the Chalcolithic period in the southern Levant

Architecture reflects social aspects of past communities. Structure attributes such as shape, size, building material and decoration, provide valuable information beyond their immediate structural function. However, while attributes such as size can be measured and therefore objectively compared between structures, the comparison of shape between structures is based on subjective observations. In the current study we use two quantification methods for analyzing prehistoric shape-based architectural data: (1) we developed a new method, Shape Reproducibility (SR), based on objective computerized procedure for analyzing the similarity and difference between shapes of ancient buildings; and (2) we use Continuous Symmetry Measure (CSM), a method which was originally developed for analyzing flint artifacts and ceramic vessels to objectively compare between shape symmetry. Applying these methods to settlement data of the Chalcolithic period enables quantification of the level of architectural similarity within and between different sites and their comparison to architectural data of later periods, such as the Early Bronze Age II urban center at Arad. Our CSM results suggest that the symmetry of architecture does not increase through time. Our SR findings demonstrate that in the main cultural Chalcolithic entity, the Ghassulian, the architecture of different sites could not be distinguished from one site to the other. In addition, we demonstrate that the architecture of the Chalcolithic sites in the Golan Heights is homogeneous and significantly differs from other Chalcolithic sites, while Ghassulian intra-site variability is higher. In comparison with Arad, however, this variability is relatively low and limited. These results suggest that status differentiation or hierarchical social organization cannot be indicated from Ghassulian architecture.     

THERMI ON LESBOS: A CASE STUDY OF CHANGING TRADE PATTERNS

Summary Provenance studies on archaeological metal objects rely on their trace element abundance pattern and lead isotopic composition. A comparison of these features in artifacts from different archaeological sites often requires a comparison of results reported by different laboratories. In this case reasonable conclusions can only be expected if it is assured that the respective laboratories produce compatible results. A comparison of some twenty copper-based artifacts from Thermi I and II shows this compatibility still to be less than perfect between Oxford and Heidelberg — Mainz. We find the lead isotopic compositions reported by the two laboratories to agree within the stated uncertainties of the abundance ratios of 0.1 percent. The same is also true, to within 50 percent or better, for the contents of As, Sb, Ag, Au and possibly Ni. Serious discrepancies exist, however, for Co, Pb and Zn that we argue to be due to analytical problems at Oxford. Discriminant analysis of the data from all metal-bearing occupational levels at Thermi reveals a remarkably good correspondence between trace element signature and occupational level which suggests that at the beginning of the third millennium BC intercourse between Lesbians and Aegean metal traders was rare. Lead isotope data show that the change in metal, at least that upon the transition from Towns I + II to Towns III–IV, was indeed due to a change in source region of the metal and not one caused by a change in technology.     

Study on a Simplified Calculation Method for Hydrodynamic Pressure to Slender Structures Under Earthquakes

Based on Morison hydrodynamic force theory, a simplified calculation method for hydrodynamic force to slender structures is proposed. A typical cylindrical deep water pile was chosen for study and the simplified method was used to analyze the influence of hydrodynamic pressure on the pile. Then the finite element method was used to study the dynamic characteristics of the model, and the results from both methods were compared. A comparison was also made between the shaking table test on the south tower of the Nanjing Yangtze 3rd River Bridge and the results from the simplified method.     

CELTIC SHRINES IN CENTRAL EUROPE: A SCEPTICAL APPROACH

Summary: This paper deals with the archaeological manifestations of religious activities of the Central European Celts. Until recently, the rectangular enclosures in Central Europe ('Viereckschanzen') were considered solely as sanctuaries, though present evidence allows other interpretations of the function of these sites as well. the criteria for recognizing the wooden structures situated inside the enclosed areas as shrines are far from being unambiguous and in some cases a profane, i.e. non-religious purpose may be presumed. the questions put forward here were prompted by the find of an unusual structure in the enclosure of MšeckéŽehrovice in Bohemia.     

A MICROMECHANICAL INELASTIC MODEL FOR HISTORICAL MASONRY

A micromechanical damage model for the Snite element modelling of historical masonry structures is presented in this article. Masonry is considered as a composite medium made up of a periodic assembly of blocks connected by orthogonal bed and head mortar joints. The constitutive equations, in plane stress, are based on the homogenisation theory and they consider the non linear stress-strain relationship in terms of mean stress and mean strain. Different in-plane damage mechanisms, involving both mortar and blocks, are considered and the damage process is governed by evolution laws based on an energetic approach derived from Fracture Mechanics and on a non-associated Coulomb friction law. The failure domain of the model is analysed both in the equivalent stress and in the principal stress space considering different orientations of the bed joints relative to the loading direction. A comparison with experimental results is provided. A numerical simulation of masonry walls subjected to horizontal forces proportional to their own weight is shown in order to discuss the model's capability of describing the influence of the masonry microstructure on its mechanical behaviour.