乾嘉汉学治学宗旨及其学术实践探析--以戴震、阮元为中心

乾嘉汉学治学宗旨是由文字音韵训诂入手以寻求经书义理。但汉学家对这一宗旨的理解并不一致 ,学术实践的途径亦有差异。考察其代表人物戴震、阮元各自的学术主张与学术实践 ,比较二者的同异之处 ,有助于我们进一步理解汉学治学宗旨的科学性与局限性。     

乾嘉考据学流派辨析——“吴派”、“皖派”说质疑

清代乾嘉时期,考据学风靡学界,汉学成为正宗,一时聪明才智之士,咸趋此途。惠栋标汉帜于吴,戴震集大成于皖。然其治学宗旨相同,故于清代,未以吴、皖分之,亦未以流派别之。至近代章太炎、梁启超二大师以“吴学”、“皖学”分称,遂影响至今。当代一些著名学者,论乾嘉学派,言必称“吴派”、“皖派”。名家之论,如草上之风,风行草偃,几乎所有论及清代学术的著述,乃至教科书,于乾嘉考据学,皆有“吴派”、“皖派”之分,似乎已成定论。但仔细察来,此等分法,于事实甚为不符,更无科学根据,乾嘉考据之学,何“吴派”、“皖派”之有?因此,有必要与之商榷,予以辨清。     

荀学与乾嘉新义理学的建构

在中国传统学术史上,乾嘉时期不仅以朴实考经证史之成就彪炳史册,而且在思想上别创与宋明理学异趣的新义理学。从思想渊源看,乾嘉新义理与宋明理学旧义理之歧异可溯及儒学内部孟、荀的分野,主于心性的孟学为理学所奉,而隆礼重学的荀学则为乾嘉学人所尊。荀学与乾嘉新义理学在意义上的共契,实为乾嘉学人建构义理体系的内在根据。具体而言,在心性理论层面,乾嘉新义理学“达情遂欲”的心性论奠基于荀子自然人性论;在社会理论层面,乾嘉新义理学的“以礼代理”说多所取资于荀子隆礼思想;在知识论层面,乾嘉新义理学的“兴复古学”观遥契于荀子重学思想。作为继宋明理学之后的儒学理论新形态,乾嘉新义理学实为契接晚清会通汉宋潮流的重要环节。     

戴震辨伪成就述论

戴震是清代引领一时学术风尚的考据学大师,治学注重辨章学术,考镜源流,对古人作伪之书能够博综群籍,参互考证,使伪者自出,真者自存,充分体现出“不以人蔽己,不以己自蔽”的治学风格,其态度和方法对于后来学者有着深刻影响。然而,关于戴震在辨伪方面的实践及观点,至今无人提及。本文从实例出发,略述戴氏在辨伪方面的成就。     

乾嘉“三礼”研究兴盛论

乾嘉礼学在清代学术史上蔚为大观,形成了不同于往史的特色,其原因在于:一是乾嘉宋学(理学)和汉学两大学术潮流对整个礼经学研究产生了推动作用;二是乾嘉学者以“礼”分析、批判和革新理学之“理”的意义,促发了学术界议礼潮流的兴起;三是乾嘉两朝承续康熙朝,实施礼制改革,强化朝礼建设,这在某种意义上为推动礼学研究的深入发展注入了新的活力。乾嘉礼学由博而精,专家绝学,并时而兴,基本特色在于三个方面,即:礼学注重经世,考据之风大行于新学与复兴的古学之间;礼经兼重义疏与通礼,且义疏于通礼既精且博;礼制典则的制作不仅精致,而且繁复。乾嘉汉学的求是研究法由礼经学扩大到多领域的研究,为后来洋务运动的展开以及科学救国等实学思潮的出现奠定了思维和心理基础。     

章太炎、刘师培、梁启超与近代的戴学复兴

戴震学术在清代即已引人瞩目,产生较大影响。不过当时学大都只看重戴氏考据学,轻视其义理学。今日戴震广为人知的学术大师和思想家之完整形象,则是清末民初章太炎、刘师培、梁启超等人大力阐扬的结果。在这方面,章太炎有首倡之功,刘师培有完善之力,民初梁启超等人借纪念戴震诞生200周年之机所掀起的研究高潮,促使戴学渐成显学。可以说,正是经由他们的不懈努力,戴震在中国思想、学术史上的完整地位才最终得以确立。     

乾嘉"三礼"研究兴盛论

乾嘉礼学在清代学术史上蔚为大观,形成了不同于往史的特色,其原因在于:一是乾嘉宋学(理学)和汉学两大学术潮流对整个礼经学研究产生了推动作用;二是乾嘉学者以"礼"分析、批判和革新理学之"理"的意义,促发了学术界议礼潮流的兴起;三是乾嘉两朝承续康熙朝,实施礼制改革,强化朝礼建设,这在某种意义上为推动礼学研究的深入发展注入了新的活力.乾嘉礼学由博而精,专家绝学,并时而兴,基本特色在于三个方面,即:礼学注重经世,考据之风大行于新学与复兴的古学之间;礼经兼重义疏与通礼,且义疏于通礼既精且博;礼制典则的制作不仅精致,而且繁复.乾嘉汉学的求是研究法由礼经学扩大到多领域的研究,为后来洋务运动的展开以及科学救国等实学思潮的出现奠定了思维和心理基础.     

论清代考据学的学术规范

梁启超在《中国近三百年学术史》中称;“乾嘉学者,实成一种学风,和近世科学的研究法极相近,我们可以给他们一个特别的名称,叫做‘科学的古典派’。”其实,清代考据学不仅在考据方法上与近代科学的研究法极相近,而且他们所倡导、遵循的学术规范也与近代相近。考据学的学术规范对考据学派的形成、发展、壮大,对实事求是治学精神的贯彻,对学术成果的规范化均起到了至关重要的作用。它也是考据学派不同于其他学派的主要标志之一。一、“无征不信”、“孤证不立”的论证规范考据学与理学在论证方式上有根本的区别。考据学者认为,“性理…     

戴震和皖派学术

“皖派”又称“乾嘉之学”或“清朝考证学”,专指清朝中期出现的学术运动的代表学派之一,因为安徽省徽州府休宁县人戴震为代表而誉之为“皖派”。一、“皖派”与乾嘉时期另一经学的代表学派“吴派”并称。“吴派”是以江苏苏州府吴县人惠栋;太仓直隶州嘉定县人钱大昕等人以苏州为中心的由江苏籍学者组成     

《戴震考据学研究》评价

戴震是18世纪中国杰出的学者和思想家,他在中国学术史、思想史上的地位,前贤时彦虽多有论述与高度评价,但对其治学的基础与主体——考据学方面的巨大成就,尚缺乏具体深入的研究。徐道彬《戴震考据学研究》（49．4万字,安徽大学出版社,2007年）一书,从时代背景、地域文化、个人生活经历的考察入手,     

Telling small stories: spaces of knowledge and the practice of geography

This article examines how the practice of learning geography, and the arenas in which knowledge-making takes place, can be usefully positioned within changing histories of the discipline. It contends that networks of action – understood through the intersection of social sites, subjects and sources – present a conceptual framework and narrative focus for the re-consideration of specific episodes from geography's past. The interventions made here are informed and illustrated by a 'small story' about the doing of geography. Based on different personal accounts, the story revives a series of events, encounters, dialogues and images dating back to the winter of 1951 at Glenmore Lodge, Scotland. This educational institution in the Cairngorm mountains offered children from urban areas the opportunity to learn field studies and the skills of 'outdoor citizenship'. Initially, the focus falls on Margaret Jack, a 14-year-old field-course participant. Her learning experiences are traced through personal letters, a diary and a field journal dating from that time, and her recent recollections of this event. Margaret's account dovetails with the story of her field studies instructor, Robin Murray. Robin's role is traced through his learning experiences as a geography undergraduate at Aberdeen University, and the recent recollections of Catriona Murray, his wife.     

Das Wissen der Schulden. Recht,Kulturtechnik und Alltagserfahrung im liberalen Kapitalismus

The Knowledge of Debt: Law, Media Technique, and Everyday Experience in Liberal Capitalism. Performing an object such as ‘the economy’ hinges on practices of formatting knowledge. The article proposes to look at such instituting moments in connection with social conflicts over the legitimate rules of exchange. This is exemplified by way of recounting the story of the codification of Swiss bankruptcy law in 1889. In order to homogenize the legal procedures of debt collection and bankruptcy, two subject categories were instituted: ‘merchants’ and ‘non-merchants’. These different categories were thought to account for the diverging temporalities and spaces of credit exchange in everyday economic life. The introduction of the commercial register, a media-technical apparatus, enabled a formal distinction between ‘merchants’ and ‘non-merchants’. However, this boundary was contested and proved to be porose.     

Two radiocarbon dates for freshwater shells from hierakonpolis: Archaeological and geological interpretations

Shells of two species of freshwater bivalve (Unio willcocksi Bullen Newton and Etheria elliptica Lamarck) from the predynastic Gerzean (Nagada II) Decorated Tomb at Hierakonpolis, Egypt have given dates of 5000±90 bp for the tomb, and 12,900±120 bp for an episode of Nile terrace accumulation (correlated here with the Sahaba-Darau aggradation event). The archaeological and geological significance of these results is discussed, together with an outline of problems associated with radiocarbon dating of shell. Comparisons are made with the few other radiocarbon dates available for the Predynastic period in Egypt and possible reasons for the presence of shells in the tomb are considered.     

Some chronological implications of a fossil molluscan assemblage from a neolithic site at Brook,Kent, England

The later post-glacial history of a valley in the chalk escarpment near Brook, Kent, is described, based on molluscan stratigraphy, archaeological evidence and radio-carbon dating. Differences in size and colour banding, respectively, of fossil and living representatives of two species of land snails, Pomatias elegans (Müller) and Cepaea nemoralis (L.), are correlated with climatic change during the post-glacial period. The problems of the use of fossil shells of these species as samples for radiocarbon dating are discussed.     

China's Dynamic Industrial Sector: The Internet Industry

A Singapore-based economic geographer explores and analyzes the spatially uneven evolution of the Internet industry in China, arguing that the country's immense regional disparity in the provision of Internet services is best explained by the interplay of place- and path-dependence. The author demonstrates how the highly uneven regional endowments in relevant industrial and entrepreneurial resources have led to the substantial and persistent regional imbalance within China's emerging "new economy." His initial survey of the country's 100 leading Internet content providers (firms), identified from a listing of ca. 11,700 commercial websites, is selectively augmented to reflect an increase of over 70 million Internet users in 2007, reaching a total of 253 million in June 2008, and thus overtaking the United States as the world's largest Internet market. Journal of Economic Literature, Classification Numbers: L10, L86, O30. 6 figures, 1 table, 53 references.     

The 1911 International Exposition in Rome: architecture, archaeology, and national identity

This paper discusses the 1911 International Exposition in Rome and illustrates how this patriotic celebration of the fiftieth anniversary of the Italian Sate utilized symbolic landscapes of architecture and archaeology to promote nationalist sentiments of italianità and romanità centered on the young capital of Rome. Through modern art exhibitions at the Valle Giulia, scientific conferences at the Castel Sant’Angelo, archaeological exhibits on the Roman Empire in the Baths of Diocletian, and regional Italian pavilions in the Piazza d’Armi, exposition officials offered a complex representation of Italian national identity that was modern yet ancient, cosmopolitan yet bucolic, European yet regional, and imperial yet developing.     

The Rise and Fall of Alexander the Great – The Need for Medical Analysis: Reply to Commentaries

Alexander the Great died in 323 B.C. from an unknown cause. By elucidating the nature of his death, we can better interpret various aspects of Alexandrian history. Alexander’s death may have ensued from the sequelae of a congenital scoliotic syndrome. It would therefore be of significance to note that one of the greatest leaders in history who conquered much of the then known world may have been suffering from a physical disability.     

Hospital Drama: Visual Theatres of the Medical Rendezvous from Asylum to Hospital with Reference to Specific Works by Anna Furse

Abstract

This paper is informed by Furse’s practice as a theatre maker in two fields of output that are connected by two factors: first, the presence of the woman patient — hysteric/subfertile respectively — within the clinical gaze; second, the significance of the womb to each pathology. In the treatment of each (explored in Furse’s theatre), lens based technologies play their part, whilst the cultural and medical can be seen to have overlapped to produce specific meaning with regard to Her body and its spectacularity. The article presents an overview of some of the key issues in precisely how the woman’s body becomes spectacular within this prosthetic medical gaze and how the medical — and theatrically designed spaces to represent these — become meaningful and potent proxemics that in turn inform medical/ theatrical spectatorship. Overarching nineteenth-century protocols at the Salpêtrière Hospital in Paris (where Furse’s Augustine (Big Hysteria) is set) to contemporary imaging technologies used in the treatment of subfertility with Assisted Reproduction Technologies (the topic of her Art of A.R.T. projects), it examines the way in which photography develops through cinema to X-Ray, ultrasound and then 3D/4D ultrasound to ‘capture’ the woman’s body in ways by which she becomes muted and exposed. These occular technologies that extend the gaze, first to an exterior subject and then, eventually, traversing the flesh without knife, lend specific performativity to the ‘patient’ women, within the context of hysterias and reproductive impairments respectively. Finally, issues of suspension of disbelief are addressed. The spectator’s faith in the screen-based image of Her spectacular body is interrupted in Furse’s work, which is also keenly interested in the effect of such imagery on the woman’s sense of Self. The historical and cultural leaps in this article argue that there is indeed a trajectory through the history of medical imaging since the first application of photography to anatomy to the more advanced scoping technologies of medical imaging today, and that in each era, the production of these images remain fraught with cultural implications.     

The Death of Alexander the Great – A Spinal Twist of Fate

Alexander the Great died in 323 B.C. from an unknown cause. Physical depictions of this historical figure reveal the likelihood of a cervical scoliotic deformity. This is substantiated with the medical history and is correlated with his untimely death. For the first time, it is concluded that Alexander’s death may have ensued from the sequelae of a congenital scoliotic syndrome.