THE GEOCHEMISTRY OF THE MAJOR SOURCES OF ARCHAEOLOGICAL OBSIDIAN ON HOKKAIDO ISLAND (JAPAN): SHIRATAKI AND OKETO

The geochemical compositions for obsidian from two of the most important sources on the Japanese island of Hokkaido, Shirataki and Oketo, are presented. This work represents the first systematic study of obsidian geochemistry on Hokkaido from the view of modern methodological standards. The study was performed with the help of neutron activation analysis to determine the concentrations for 28 elements. The results obtained allow us to subdivide both sources into two geochemical groups (Shirataki‐A and ‐B; and Oketo‐A and ‐B), with each representing an individual sub‐source. Obsidian from both Shirataki and Oketo sources is identified at archaeological sites located on Hokkaido, on the neighbouring Sakhalin Island and Kurile Islands, and in the lower course of the Amur River basin. The distance of obsidian transport during the Upper Palaeolithic was up to ～250 km, and in the following Neolithic and Palaeometal periods up to ～1200 km. This testifies to the wide distribution of Hokkaido obsidian to archaeological complexes in North‐East Asia and its active transport/exchange in prehistory. The data presented here should be used as a reference for the obsidian geochemistry of Shirataki and Oketo sources from now on.     

Obsidian provenance for prehistoric complexes in the Amur River basin (Russian Far East)

The sources of high quality volcanic glass (obsidian) for archaeological complexes in the Amur River basin of the Russian Far East have been established, based on geochemical analyses by neutron activation and X-ray fluorescence of both ‘geological’ (primary sources) and ‘archaeological’ (artifacts from the Neolithic and Early Iron Age cultural complexes) specimens. A major obsidian source identified as the Obluchie Plateau, located in the middle course of the Amur River, was found to be responsible for supplying the entire middle and lower parts of the Amur River basin during prehistory. The source has been carefully studied and sampled for the first time. Minor use of three other sources was established for the lower part of the Amur River basin. Obsidian from the Basaltic Plateau source, located in the neighboring Primorye (Maritime) Province, was found at two sites of the Initial Neolithic (dated to ca. 11,000–12,500 BP). At two other sites from the same time period, obsidian from a still unknown source called “Samarga” was established. At the Suchu Island site of the Early Neolithic (dated to ca. 7200–8600 BP), obsidian from the ‘remote’ source of Shirataki (Shirataki-A sub-source) on Hokkaido Island (Japan) was identified. The range of obsidian transport in the Amur River basin was from 50 to 750 km within the basin, and from 550 to 850 km in relation to the ‘remote’ sources at the Basaltic Plateau and Shirataki-A located outside the Amur River valley. The long-distance transport/exchange of obsidian in the Amur River basin in prehistory has now been securely established.     

Carbon isotope fractionation between diet,breath CO2, and bioapatite in different mammals

The carbon isotope fractionation between tooth enamel bioapatite, breath CO₂, and diet was measured for voles, rabbits, pigs, and cattle on controlled diets. The measured fractionation (expressed as isotope enrichment ɛ*) between enamel and diet was 11.5 ± 0.3‰, 12.8 ± 0.7‰, 13.3 ± 0.3‰, and 14.6 ± 0.3‰ for these respective species. There is a 1:1 correlation between ɛ*_{breath–diet} and ɛ*_{enamel–diet} (r² = 0.94, p < 0.01), whereas our data do not resolve significant inter-species differences in ɛ*_{enamel–breath}. These findings are consistent with the hypothesis that inter-species differences in ɛ*_{bioapatite–diet} are primarily a result of differences in digestive physiology, rather than differences in the magnitude of fractionation between mineral and body fluid.     

Infra-red Photoacoustic and Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry Measurements of Obsidian Hydration Rims

A procedure has been developed for measuring obsidian hydration rim thicknesses on archaeological artefacts using infra-red photoacoustic spectroscopy (IR-PAS). Calibration of the IR-PAS values with depth was completed using secondary ion mass spectrometry (SIMS) and optical microscopy to relate the quantity of diffused water to the measured thickness of the hydration layer. By monitoring the absorbance intensity at 1630 cm⁻¹wavenumbers, hydration rims between approximately 1 μm and 12 μm may be accurately measured and used for chronometric age estimates. SIMS depth profiling has the ability to measure layers less than 1 μm thick, extending the age calibration to samples of less than 100 years in age.     

THE PROVENANCE OF OBSIDIAN ARTEFACTS FROM THE WĀDĪ ATH‐THAYYILAH 3 NEOLITHIC SITE (EASTERN YEMEN PLATEAU) BY LA–ICP–MS

The geological sources of obsidian in the Red Sea region provide the raw material used for the production of obsidian artefacts found in prehistoric sites on both sides of the Red Sea, as far afield as Egypt, the Persian Gulf and Mesopotamia. This paper presents the chemical characterization of five obsidian geological samples and 20 prehistoric artefacts from a systematically excavated Neolithic settlement in highland Yemen. The major element concentrations were determined by SEM–EDS analysis and the trace element concentrations were analysed by the LA–ICP–MS method, an almost non‐destructive technique capable of chemically characterizing the volcanic glass. A comparison of archaeological and geological determinations allows the provenance of the obsidian used for the Neolithic artefacts to be traced to definite sources in the volcanic district of the central Yemen Plateau.     

Magnetic Sourcing of Obsidians in Southern South America: Some Successes and Doubts

Sourcing of archaeological obsidians is of great importance in unravelling the cultural, social and economic development of many ancient societies. Use of magnetic properties of obsidian fragments has been reported as a cheap, fast and versatile tool for these purposes. One hundred and seventy-six obsidians from archaeological sites and sources in Argentina and southern Chile were analysed magnetically using the weight-normalized intensity of JNRM (Intensity of Natural Remanent Magnetization), the intensity of JSIRM (Intensity of Saturation of Isothermal Remanent Magnetization) at 0·35 T and the bulk susceptibility. The method allowed identification of at least two different sources for archaeological materials found respectively to the north and south of the Lago Argentino, in SW Santa Cruz province, Argentina. Comparison of values from most samples in south and central Santa Cruz with those from a known source may lead to the interpretation that most of them belong to that source. In contrast, a critical analysis of the resolution of this using a larger than usual number of samples from three well distant obsidian sources in Argentina showed that two of the sources showed an almost complete overlapping of these three parameters, and all displayed a very large dispersion of values. This different result indicates that the magnetic sourcing of obsidians may not always have the resolution previously portrayed, but is applicable in certain localities.     

Recovery of Protein and DNA Trapped in Stone Tool Microcracks

Microcracks produced during the manufacture of stone tools may harbour ancient biological residues. Our studies test this hypothesis using light, scanning electron, fluorescence, and confocal microscopy to characterize microcracks produced in obsidian microblades by pressure flaking. Cell-sized fluorescent latex beads penetrated microcracks to depths exceeding 50 μm below the microblade surface. Fluorescently labelled blood protein and DNA were trapped in microcracks within 5 min of exposure. Washing artifacts with water did not remove blood residues from microcracks. However, 60–80% of trapped blood protein and DNA were released by an 18-hour incubation in 4M guanidine hydrochloride or by sonication in 5% ammonium hydroxide. These experiments suggest that residues trapped in artifact microcracks represent an important and often overlooked source of ancient DNA and protein.     

Assessment of material characteristics of ancient concretes,Grande Aula,Markets of Trajan,Rome

The Grande Aula, or Great Hall, of the Markets of Trajan (AD 96 to 115) is an intact example of the domed, concrete architecture of imperial Rome. Petrographic, x-ray diffraction, chemical, and SEM analyses demonstrate that wall mortars contain Pozzolane Rosse volcanic ash aggregate (harenae fossiciae) and strätlingite, a complex calcium aluminate cement hydrate (C₂ ASH₈) that gives modern cements good durability and compressive strength. Specific gravity tests and a new petrographic method for assessing bulk densities indicate unit weights of about 1750 kg/m³ for the wall mortars and 1430–1640 kg/m³ for the pumice bearing, vaulted ceiling mortars. Innovative point load source tests record the tensile strengths (f_t) of the aggregate and interfacial elements of the conglomeratic concrete fabric. These suggest f_t of about 2.7 MPa for brick, 1.2 MPa for Tufo Lionato tuff, and 0.9 MPa for Tufo Giallo della Via Tiberina tuff coarse aggregate (caementa), based on a tentative, approximate correlation with splitting (Brazilian) tests. The pozzolanic mortar and interfacial zones have lower f_t in the range of 0.8 MPa to 0.5 MPa. The relatively low mortar strength and its somewhat tenuous adhesion to the coarse aggregate suggests that the caementa may have arrested the propagation of tensile microcracks that formed in the mortar, thereby increasing the composite tensile strength of the concrete. Roman builders selected the complex aggregate mixes to optimize the performance of the wall and vault concretes.     

Age and exploitation of obsidian from the Medicine Lake Highland,California

The relationship between major and minor elements, trace element composition, and age of obsidian sources within a volcanic field, is of considerable interest for obsidian source and artifact research in the New and Old World. The present study investigates this relationship in the Medicine Lake Highland of western North America. Geological evidence had indicated a very young age for all obsidian sources in the Highland, yet archaeological evidence suggested that obsidian was utilized for several thousand years. X-ray fluorescence analysis distinguished the latest flow (Glass Mountain) from the Cougar Butte, Grasshopper Flat, and Lost Iron Wells sources. Data obtained from two nearby archaeological sites showed that obsidian from the latter two sources was used by c. 7500 bc, while Glass Mountain material was not used (or available) until after 1360± 240 bp. These findings indicate that inferences of an extremely recent age for all obsidian sources in the volcanic field were unwarranted. Further analysis of major and minor elements indicated different hydration rates for these sources. The results argue that significant geochemical variability, as well as age differences, can exist between obsidian sources within the same volcanic field.     

Ancient long-distance trade in Western North America: new AMS radiocarbon dates from Southern California

Eleven Olivella biplicata spire-lopped shell beads from six sites located 250–365 km inland from the Pacific coast of southern California produced AMS dates between 11,200 and 7860 CAL BP. Olivella shell beads were well-documented items of prestige and media of exchange in Native California, and recovery of these examples from inland contexts indicates low-level exchange between resident populations of the coast and the southwestern Great Basin by at least 10,300–10,000 CAL years BP. These findings represent some of the earliest unequivocal evidence for long-distance trade in western North America and push the antiquity of this important form of inter-group interaction back several thousand years earlier than previously thought.     

Colonization of Northern Eurasia by Modern Humans: Radiocarbon Chronology and Environment

The distribution of frequencies of radiocarbon-dated Palaeolithic sites in northern Eurasia shows three peaks of 40–30, 24–18 and 17–1 ka bp. We argue that these peaks reflect the waves in the colonization of that area by Anatomically Modern Humans stemming from Central and Eastern Europe and caused by environmental stress.     

Reconstructing northern Chinese Neolithic subsistence practices by isotopic analysis

Stable isotope signatures of both human and non-human animal bone samples indicate that Neolithic farmers of the Yellow and Wei River basins in China potentially cultivated millet for two reasons: as a staple for human consumption and as fodder for domesticated animals, specifically pigs, dogs, and perhaps chicken. Bone samples were analyzed from four Neolithic sites: Jiangzhai, Shijia, Xipo, and Kangjia, spanning the time period from 7000 to 4000 years ago. A combination of very high carbon isotope ratios (δ¹³C = −7.7 ± 0.4‰) and low nitrogen isotope ratios (δ¹⁵N = 7.5 ± 0.5‰) in samples of Xipo pig and dog bone suggests that these monogastric animals consumed substantial quantities of C₄ plants, almost certainly millets. In fact, the proportion of C₄ plants in animal diets appears to have been even greater than that in human diet. Stable isotope values (δ¹³C = −10.0 ± 0.8‰; δ¹⁵N = 8.3 ± 0.5‰) of human bone collagen recovered at Jiangzhai and Shijia indicate a staple role for millets, as well as the consumption of both wild and other non-C₄ domesticated plant foods. As millet agriculture and animal husbandry apparently depended on one another, a strong mutualism between them was likely established in northern China during the Neolithic. We propose that variable redistribution of agricultural products between humans and animals, depending on the availability of wild resources and annual fluctuations in agricultural output, helped ensure the stability of Neolithic human subsistence in the Yellow and Wei River basins.     

Initial source evaluation of archaeological obsidian from the Kuril Islands of the Russian Far East using portable XRF

Obsidian artifacts recently have been recovered from 18 archaeological sites on eight islands across the Kuril Island archipelago in the North Pacific Ocean, suggesting a wide-ranging distribution of obsidian throughout the island chain over the last 2,500 years. Although there are no geologic sources of obsidian in the Kurils that are known to have been used prehistorically, sources exist in Hokkaido, Japan, and Kamchatka, Russia, the southern and northern geographic regions respectively from which obsidian may have entered the Kuril Islands. This paper reports on the initial sourcing attempt of Kuril Islands obsidian through the analysis of 131 obsidian artifacts. Data from this research were generated through the application of portable XRF technology, and are used to address research questions concerning prehistoric mobility, exchange, and social networking in the Kuril Islands.     

Possible obsidian sources for artifacts from Timor: narrowing the options using chemical data

Measurements made at the Australian National University using laser ablation ICPMS show that none of the 88 analyzed obsidian artifacts from East Timor match either the known Papua New Guinea or the five Island SE Asian source samples in our ANU collections. There is a coastal journey of more than 3000 km between the occurrence of obsidians from the Bismarck Archipelago volcanic province of Papua New Guinea and the Sunda-Banda Arc volcanic chain, yet obsidian artifacts from the two important PNG sources of Talasea and Lou Island are found at coastal Bukit Tengkorak in eastern Sabah at a similar distance along with material that has no known source. Timor lies south of the eastern section of the active volcanic Banda Arc island chain but it is within range of possible rhyolite sources from there. Although there is a continuous chain of around 60 active volcanoes stretching from west Sumatra to the Moluccas most are basaltic to andesitic with few areas likely to produce high silica dacite–rhyolite deposits. This does not exclude the possibility that the volcanic landscapes may contain obsidian, but without detailed survey and chemical analysis of sources from the Sunda-Banda Arc the attribution of the Timor obsidian artifacts remains to be demonstrated. Timor may seem to be an unlikely source for the presence of obsidians as it lacks reports of the silica-rich rhyolite volcanic centers necessary to produce this material. Despite the absence of detailed survey and analysis of Indonesian obsidian sources, especially from the volcanically active Banda Arc, this paper presents evidence that one of two obsidian sources is clearly from Timor while the other, with less certainty, is also from an unknown local source.     

Methods for inferring paleohabitats from the functional morphology of bovid phalanges

The functional morphology of postcranial remains can be used to infer habitat preference. This approach is typically considered an “ecomorphological” method, and has frequently been applied to bovid postcranial remains. Methods for predicting habitat preference from bovid postcrania currently exist for femora, metapodials, and astragali. Here we describe three methods for predicting paleohabitats using measurements of African bovid phalanges (proximal, intermediate, and distal). The proximal phalanx method correctly predicted the habitat preference for 130 of 183 modern bovid specimens (71.0%, 2.8 times better than chance, p < 0.0001). The intermediate phalanx method correctly predicted the habitat preference for 115 of 163 modern bovid specimens (70.6%, 2.8 times better than chance, p < 0.0001). The distal phalanx method correctly predicted the habitat preference for 87 of 122 modern bovid specimens (71.3%, 2.8 times better than chance, p < 0.0001). These accuracies compare well with those of existing such methods (1.8–3.4 times better than chance). Analysis of the probabilities associated with the habitat predictions allows confidence thresholds to be established that identify specific predictions which have <5% chance of being in error. This raises the effective accuracy of the methods to 95%. Extensive exploration and manipulation of the underlying data demonstrate that the habitat predictions are generally robust, and are relatively independent of body weight, taxonomy, and sample composition. These methods are broadly applicable, relatively accurate, and can be used to generate independent predictions of habitat from different elements, and thus constitute a useful approach to inferring past environments.     

The antiquity of Olivella shell beads at CA-ORA-64: AMS radiocarbon dated between 9420 and 7780 cal BP

Investigations in the 1960s and 1970s showed the Irvine site (CA-ORA-64) to be among the oldest shell middens known from the Pacific Coast of North America. The site chronology, based on conventional analysis of mixed shell samples collected from heavily bioturbated soils, extended back to ca. 8440 RYBP. Recent work at the site provided an opportunity to refine the CA-ORA-64 chronology via AMS ¹⁴C dating of single shell fragments, including 14 Olivella beads. Long considered to be one of the earliest ornament types made by Pacific Coast peoples, such spire-removed Olivella beads were used through much of the Holocene and generally are not good chronological indicators. AMS analysis of the CA-ORA-64 specimens, however, produced a consistent series of Early Holocene dates that includes some of the oldest securely dated shell beads in North America. Along with obsidian from interior sources, Olivella beads played an important role in early exchange networks between coastal and interior peoples. Methodologically, our research demonstrates the utility of AMS ¹⁴C dating in determining the age of key artifact types found in multicomponent sites with assemblages affected by stratigraphic mixing.     

A rock magnetic record of Pleistocene rainfall variations at the Palaeolithic site of Attirampakkam,Southeastern India

Attirampakkam, an open-air stratified Palaeolithic site in southeastern India is the focus of ongoing studies to investigate the nature of Lower and Middle Palaeolithic occupation in relation to changing Pleistocene environments. The paucity of faunal or palaeobotanical remains at the site required the use of rock magnetic properties (χ_lf, χ_fd, χ_fd %, χ_ARM, SIRM, χ_ARM/SIRM, SIRM/χ_lf, χ_ARM/χ_lf, χ_ARM/χ_fd, S-ratio, HIRM and HIRM/IRM_300mT) as proxies for deciphering the palaeoenvironments and palaeoclimates of the region. Rock magnetic data from stratified deposits within excavated trenches show that the bulk of the sedimentation was intermittent with no subaerial exposure of sediments for long periods, and points to fluctuating wetter and drier climates associated with the Acheulian to Late Middle Palaeolithic levels. There is a general trend towards a wetter climate from Layer 5 upwards. Layer 7 offers evidence of bacterial magnetite (χ_ARM/χ_lf > 40 and χ_ARM/χ_fd > 1000), suggesting the onset of micro-anaerobic environments as a result of floods. Greigite is indicated in Layer 5 (SIRM/χ_lf > 30 × 10³ A m^?1), which indicates a reducing environment. Layer 2 represents an arid climate (higher proportion of haematite and a coarser magnetic grain size). Layer 1a again is indicative of an arid climate (presence of calcrete, magnetically “hard” minerals and coarser magnetic grain size). Results indicate that the southeast coast of India experienced a mostly dry tropical climate during the Pleistocene. The detected occurrence of a few notably more arid intervals did not disrupt occupation of the site by successive groups of hominins.     

Selective hunting of pine marten,Martes martes,in Late Mesolithic Denmark

Pine marten, Martes martes, is the dominating fur prey at three contemporaneous Danish Late Atlantic sites, Agernæs (EMNI = 34), Ringkloster (EMNI = 41) and Tybrind Vig (EMNI = 26). All skeletal elements are represented and the only marks present on the skeleton are those consistent with skinning. Burned teeth in the three populations suggest either new hunting methods or a ritual act. Ringkloster is on the mainland, while Tybrind Vig and Agernæs are island localities. Morphometric data indicate that the subfossil population of larger individuals was maintained on the mainland due to free migration, while the animals in the subfossil island populations had decreased in size in the Late Atlantic.     

Obsidian procurement,least cost path analysis,and social interaction in the Mimbres area of southwestern New Mexico

For over 15 years chemical compositional analyses of obsidian artifacts recovered from archaeological sites in the southwestern United States have been increasingly used to address many research agendas. Despite this increasing interest in obsidian studies, few have attempted to synthesize the ever-growing amount of data generated from the numerous projects being conducted in the southwest. Here, we synthesize and present data for 923 sourced obsidian samples recovered from over 80 archaeological sites in the Mimbres area of southwestern New Mexico. We then use least cost path analysis as a means of investigating procurement patterns as well as networks of social interaction within the region.