THE OLIVE IN THE PREHISTORIC AEGEAN: THE EVIDENCE FOR DOMESTICATION IN THE EARLY BRONZE AGE

Summary. In 1972 Colin Renfrew suggested that the rise of Mycenaean civilization may have been made possible by the development of a polycultural triad of wheat, vine and olive in the Early Bronze Age. A careful examination of the botanical and archaeological evidence for the domestication of the olive lends little support to this aspect of the thesis. The palynological evidence from various points in Greece is inconclusive, but for most areas it would seem to suggest that the intensive cultivation of olive began in the Late Bronze Age or even later.
No conclusive archaeological evidence for processing or storage of olive oil exists for any period in the Bronze Age. The question of when olive domestication took place must remain unanswered until more data are available from Early and Middle Bronze Age contexts and more conclusive botanical data have been collected.     

LATE BRONZE AND IRON AGE LAKE SETTLEMENT IN SCOTLAND AND IRELAND: THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE 'CRANNOG' IN THE NORTH AND WEST

Summary.   This paper considers the evidence for the origins and development of the lake settlement tradition of Scotland and Ireland in the Late Bronze and Iron Ages. Considering a crannog 'event horizon' around the mid-first millennium BC, dating and structural evidence are compared and contrasted, and the evidence for non-domestic activity including ritual and votive deposition is contextualized. It is argued that the concurrent appearance of crannogs with the flourish of domestic monumentality in Scotland and Ireland can be seen as a consequence of the fusion of ritual and domestic spheres of life in the later first millennium BC, integrating the themes of architectural monumentality and the Iron Age reverence of water.     

A REVIEW OF THE LATER UPPER PALAEOLITHIC IN THE ODER AND VISTULA BASINS IN THE LIGHT OF RECENT RESEARCH

Summary. The withdrawal of the Vistulan ice-sheet some 15,000 years ago permitted colonisation of the Oder and Vistula basins by a succession of Late Upper Palaeolithic peoples, amongst whom various distinct groups can be recognised. Magdalenian, Shouldered Point, Curved Back Point and Tanged Point technocomplexes are distinguished by the author, who discusses them with reference to the salient features of the archaeological assemblages, comments on the dating evidence, and considers both internal variability and possible relationships with industries in Western and Eastern Europe. The populations of this region, which coincides approximately with the boundaries of modern Poland, were hunter-gatherers exploiting late glacial and early postglacial game resources, but there is evidence that systematic use was made of other local resources, such as ochre (mined at Rydno), Jurassic flint and the chocolate flint of the Holy Cross Mountains. In this process some of the Late Upper Palaeolithic peoples travelled long distances and established wide contacts. Use of the chocolate flint by Swiderian groups of the Tanged Point technocomplex is proving to be a particularly worthwhile study: flint of this kind is found at some 300 out of 700 Swiderian sites. Actual quarrying places are known in the source area, with working and living sites occurring at various distances from them, offering considerable potential for a study of contemporary economic and social organisation and seasonal migration.     

THE CASE FOR CONTINUITY IN FIFTH-CENTURY CANTERBURY RE-EXAMINED

Summary. Brooks (1986) concluded that there was no compelling evidence for continuity between the late Roman and early Anglo-Saxon periods in any of the major towns of Roman Britain. Important new evidence, especially from the Marlowe I–IV and Marlowe Theatre sites, necessitates a re-examination of the position in Canterbury. The conclusions reached are that (a) the gap in occupation in Canterbury is much shorter than previously thought, and perhaps as little as 20 years; (b) nevertheless, because there is no evidence of cultural mingling between the Romano-British and the Anglo-Saxons, or of agricultural use of the dark soil, there still is a gap, and continuity in Canterbury therefore still remains to be proved.     

EARLY EUBOEAN SETTLEMENTS IN THE CARTHAGE AREA

Summary.   There is growing archaeological evidence that Greeks and Phoenicians cooperated, or at least were not serious rivals in early days of exploration of the western Mediterranean, before the sixth-century trade wars, even to the point of settling side-by-side. The geographical, textual and material evidence for Greek presence close to, and at Carthage in early days is here reviewed.     

DECORATIVE STONES FOR ARCHITECTURE IN THE ROMAN EMPIRE

Summary. A general summary of the present knowledge of the Roman marble trade is given, with particular reference to uses in architecture. The Greek background is given briefly and evidence from the literary sources is discussed. The main features of the organisation set up in the mid 1st century AD for the transport of decorative stones are examined and an appendix details the main sources of supply. General observations are made about the distributions of certain types of marble and granite.     

EXPLAINING THE VARIATION IN THE EMPIRICAL ESTIMATES OF ACADEMIC KNOWLEDGE SPILLOVERS*

ABSTRACT This paper presents a meta‐regression analysis of the empirical studies exploring the relationship between academic knowledge spillovers and regional innovation. The results of the literature are found to depend on country effects, the level of geographical aggregation employed, the method of measuring innovative output, the use of industry‐level data, and on the sectoral composition of the sample. Endogeneity, sample selection, and agglomeration forces are further elements that explain the findings on this issue but only weak evidence, after controlling for publication bias, supports the existence of a genuine spillover effect of university research on regional innovation.     

THE TWILIGHT OF ADVERSARINESS: TRENDS IN CIVIL JUSTICE

The author evaluates changes in the form of civil adjudication that have occurred since the adoption of the Federal Rules of Civil Procedure in 1938. The evidence reveals a. paradoxical situation–the system has become both less and more adversarial. After identifying the causes of these opposing trends, the author concludes that the forces undermining adversariness are more powerful than those supporting the traditional model. Finally, the implications of this retreat from customary procedure are explored.     

1470 INCA EXPANSION INTO THE LAND OF THE CHACHAPOYA: ARCHAEOLOGICAL RESEARCH IN THE CLOUD FOREST ON THE EASTERN SLOPES OF THE ANDES MOUNTAINS IN PERU

Starting from around AD 800, the Chachapoya developed their own culture with monumental architecture. It came to an end in 1470 after the conquest by the Incas. At that time, a different architecture was introduced in the region followed by changes in the landscape. The article summarises the available evidence on architectural and archaeological remains dated to the period following the Inca conquest.     

A REVIEW OF THE EVIDENCE FOR CONTINUITY IN BRITISH TOWNS IN THE 5TH AND 6TH CENTURIES1

Summary. An attempt is first made to define ‘town’and ‘continuity’for this period, and to assess the vigour of towns in the fourth century. The body of the article is a review of the fifth and sixth century archaeological evidence (including structures, artefacts and dark soil) and an analysis of the interpretations based upon it especially the theories of (1) Germanic ‘mercenaries’and (2) the prolongation of towns into the fifth century so that they overlap with early English activity. The conclusion is reached that there is no archaeological evidence for continuity in fifth and sixth century towns.     

THE BILTMORE MOUND AND HOPEWELLIAN MOUND USE IN THE SOUTHERN APPALACHIANS

Abstract

Biltmore Mound, located on the Swannanoa River in Asheville, North Carolina, was constructed over a Connestee phase habitation, the earliest evidence dating to about A.D. 300. Mound construction began sometime between A.D. 400 and 550, with the second to last mound stage constructed about A.D. 580–600. Because of the diverse contexts and the excellent preservation of faunal remains, we are able to provide some insights into Connestee ritualism at Biltmore Mound. The Biltmore Mound was a platform used to support large public structures for ritual and ceremonial activities. It was constructed of varying colored and textured soils from a variety of source areas that arguably had symbolic importance. The mound was primarily built out (rather than up) with several mantles that may have comprised a complete ritual cycle of mound construction.     

PREHISTORIC COPPER PRODUCTION IN THE INN VALLEY (AUSTRIA), AND THE EARLIEST COPPER IN CENTRAL EUROPE*

In recent years archaeological finds and scientific analyses have provided increasing evidence for a very early beginning of copper production in the rich mining area of the Tyrolean Alps. The earliest findings derive from an excavation of a multi‐phase settlement on the Mariahilfbergl in Brixlegg, which revealed evidence that a small amount of fahlores, probably of local provenance, was at least heated if not even smelted there in the Late Neolithic Münchshöfen culture (the second half of the fifth millennium bc ). However, most copper finds of this horizon consist of low‐impurity copper that most probably derives from Majdanpek in Serbia. This long‐distance relationship is corroborated by typological features that link some aspects of the Münchshöfen culture with the Carpathian basin. Thus it is not yet clear if, at Brixlegg, actual copper production took place or, rather, an experimental treatment of the local ores. The typical fahlore composition, with arsenic and antimony in the per cent and silver and bismuth in the per mille ranges, appears in quantity only in the Early Bronze Age. Many thousands of Ösenringe are known from many central European Early Bronze Age sites, with a chemical composition typical of fahlores. At Buchberg near Brixlegg, a fortified settlement with slags from fahlore smelting proves that the local ores were indeed exploited. The lead isotope ratios of Ösenringe from the Gammersham hoard in Bavaria, which consist of fahlore copper, confirm this and suggest that copper mining and production in the Inn Valley reached a first climax during that period. In the Late Bronze Age, copper was produced at an almost industrial level.     

THE ASSESSMENT OF RADIONUCLIDE DISTRIBUTION IN SILEX BY AUTORADIOGRAPHY IN THE CONTEXT OF DOSE RATE DETERMINATION FOR THERMOLUMINESCENCE DATING

A combination of two autoradiography methods was applied to investigate the radionuclide distribution patterns in a range of different silices. We obtained greyscale images (β‐radiation) and α‐track patterns for qualitative assessment, and used a statistical approach to quantify the degree of uniformity of the radiation fields. It was found that almost all samples are poor in potassium, thorium and uranium, and that locally high concentrations are present only in dark‐coloured veins and inclusions. Statistical analyses reveal evidence of radionuclide clustering in more than half of the 21 specimens. Concerning thermoluminescence dating of burnt lithics, such gradients should be taken into account to improve precision and accuracy in cases where the external radiation is not strongly dominating for the sample under consideration.     

THE FORMATION OF SOCIAL RANK IN THE EARLY NEOLITHIC OF NORTHERN EUROPE

Klavs Randsborg has made important contributions to the archaeology of the Bronze Age and later prehistoric periods, but in the 1970s he also touched upon issues such as the formation of rank in Neolithic societies. In his article ‘Social Dimensions of Early Neolithic Denmark’, he suggested that a hierarchical society arose at the transition from the Early to Middle Neolithic, c. 3300–3200 BC. Since then, excavations and research have resulted in numerous publications about the Neolithic, but only rarely have these examined social development. In this article, the authors continue the debate, sharing the same starting point as Klavs Randsborg, but here approaching the question of emerging social inequality on the background of recent research into the early agricultural societies in Northern Europe, seen in a broader European context. The primary focus is upon burial monuments as manifestations of status and power, and parallels are drawn with similar construction activities amongst present‐day farming communities in such remote areas as the islands of Southeast Asia. The social organisation and ritual customs of these modern farming communities are considered relevant when interpreting the archaeological evidence for early agricultural societies in Northern Europe.     

THE BYZANTINE CHURCH OF THE NUTRITION IN NAZARETH REDISCOVERED

Abstract

Although Nazareth has usually been seen by scholars as a relatively minor Byzantine pilgrimage centre, it contained perhaps the most important ‘lost’ Byzantine church in the Holy Land, the Church of the Nutrition – according to De Locis Sanctis built over the house where it was believed that Jesus Christ had been a child. This article, part of a series of final interim reports of the PEF-funded ‘Nazareth Archaeological Project’, presents evidence that this church has been discovered at the present Sisters of Nazareth convent in central Nazareth. The scale of the church and its surrounding structures suggests that Nazareth was a much larger, and more important, centre for Byzantine-period pilgrimage than previously supposed. The church was used in the Crusader period, after a phase of desertion, prior to destruction by fire, probably in the 13th century.     

EVOLUTION OF URBAN SYSTEMS IN THE PARETO PLANE*

ABSTRACT Distributions of city sizes are usually characterized by their Pareto index. This, however, turns out to be a rather restrictive view, for the Pareto distribution is known to become singular whenever the Pareto index becomes smaller than one, a case which is fairly frequent in empirical distributions. We show that the introduction of finite Pareto distributions in which city sizes are bounded from above solves a number of difficulties encountered by the rank-size rule and by the unbounded Pareto distribution. Combined with the use of finite Pareto distributions, the green-belt model that has been introduced previously is reexamined. It implies definite constraints for the long-run evolution of urban systems; it is in the cases of countries experiencing a process of fast urbanization that these constraints are of greatest significance. The implications of the model are confronted with empirical evidence concerning the evolution of urban systems in major industrialized countries during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries.     

THE EARLIEST USE OF CORUNDUM AND DIAMOND,IN PREHISTORIC CHINA*

The majority of prehistoric lithic artefacts were fashioned from rocks and minerals no harder than quartz, and there is no prehistoric evidence for the working of harder materials, such as corundum and diamond. The earliest physical evidence for the use of corundum (ruby, sapphire) is thought to be the abrasive grit recovered from Bronze Age Minoan quartz beads (c. 1700–1500 bc ), while diamond is thought to have been used no earlier than 500 bc , in India. Here we show that corundum was worked c. 4000–3500 bc during the Neolithic period in China, in the form of polished axes from the Liangzhu and Sanxingcun cultures. We also present physical evidence that later Liangzhu axes (c. 2500 bc ), made from the same previously undescribed rock whose most abundant component is corundum, were polished to a mirror‐like finish with a diamond abrasive. Our findings, which are the first to support the use of corundum and diamond in a prehistoric context, may also help to explain the trademark feature of the Neolithic in China, vast quantities of finely polished nephrite jade artefacts.     

THE AUTHENTICITY OF FIGURINES,ANIMALS AND POTTERY FACSIMILES OF BRONZES IN THE HUI HSIEN STYLE

For some 15 years the authenticity of a group of small pottery pieces, claimed to have originated in the Hui Hsien area of China, has been the subject of academic discussion and some dissension. The thermolumines-cent dating of 22 such pieces from 4 independent collections is reported following a review of archaeological evidence for the origin of the material and of scientific investigations that have previously been made in investigation of its authenticity. It is concluded that all the pieces are of modern origin and not some 2300 years old as their stylistic forms might suggest.