Some Angles on the Anglo Debate

Little can be done to replace English as the world’s common language for full WAC congresses. WAC intercongresses, however, offer an opportunity for linguistic (and intellectual) diversity. A regular plenary session at WAC full congresses in which the best works in archaeological theory are presented, with special efforts to include archaeologists whose works are not in English (in addition to those whose works are in English) might help insure diversity of perspectives in WAC.     

WAC at a Crossroads

The Sixth World Archaeological Congress in Dublin is likely to be a crossroads for the organisation, as it negotiates a number of key issues. One set of issues is concerned with the manner in which we negotiate the sharply politically divided nature of the contemporary moment. It is one of the extraordinary ironies of the current moment that the world of Dublin 2008 is, in many ways, more sharply divided, less securely predictable, and less amenable to immediate analysis than the world of Southampton 1986. So how does WAC find a way through these contending forces, pressures and identities? One answer comes from reminding ourselves that WAC has always been an oppositional organisation of a particular kind, cutting against the grain of received modes of thought and practice. Another answer comes from reminding ourselves of WAC’s core intellectual project. The WAC of 2008 exists as a loose conjunction of at least three different projects. The first is concerned with asserting the rights of Indigenous persons and groups in relation to archaeological processes. The second is about asserting the interests of archaeologists from the global South. The third is about contesting a particular politics of knowledge, and framing an epistemological challenge to received modes of thought and practice. These projects share a number of points in common, although they also pull in different directions. WAC was founded on a discussion of “sameness”, the extent to which we formed part of a “one world” archaeology. Perhaps it is time to find a way—seriously, respectfully—to talk about the points on which we differ?     

Heritage Ethics for a Present Imperfect

Lynn identifies three critical discussion that framed the Stanford workshop. First, the language of the code, which she feels should reflect our acknowledgement that archaeologists are not the primary stakeholders for most situations and using core values instead of codification as a starting point. Second, the recognition of particular histories and the consequences of colonial encounters, with the acknowledgment that colonialist relations continue to exist in many places. Third is the issue of how WAC positions itself in relation to issues of social justice. Lynn points out that while WAC could be an active vehicle for attaining social justice on a global scale, the ethical implications of taking any kind of interventionist stance need to be fully thought through, lest they be seen as telling people what to do—a stance that would only serve to mirror imperialist and colonialist practices. We need to ask people what they want in regard to their heritage and be prepared to listen, even if archaeology is not immediately important for them or they suggest directions that we find challenging.     

The Process is the Outcome

Ethics are the key to what WAC is all about. It is our stated responsibility as WAC members to help shed the dark disciplinary past and forge a future archaeology of solidarity with the aim of fostering equality (but not sameness) among people everywhere. The present Forum section of Archaeologies showcases the scope and depth of the discussions surrounding this core aspect of WAC, which took place at the first meeting of the Committee on Ethics (henceforth CoE) at Stanford Archaeology Center (California, USA) from April 19th to 21st 2007. It is an invitation to WAC members and others to partake in the process of drafting a “General Code of Ethics” for WAC, a process that ultimately is much more about inclusive discussions and decisions on a framework for ethical practice than about writing a text or proscribing how to behave. The second affiliation for Julie Hollowell will be in effect from 15 December 2007.     

Being Colombian, Wanting Visa

This author draws attention to the humiliating and unfair burden that is placed on Colombian citizens due to an international condemnation that seems to equate being Colombian with being a criminal. He points to how changes in global alliances have compounded this situation, particularly through the recent imposition of a visa requirement by Spain, in compliance with European Union regulations. He argues that the colonial order is maintained, to a not insignificant degree, by its acceptance by colonized peoples, and points to a growing opposition to the neocolonial order. The deliberately political creation of plural and horizontal bodies, such as WAC, are welcome outcomes of this movement. Contemporary archaeological practice has the potential (and the responsibility) to further that trend through a participatory, open, and pluralistic approach to intercultural relationships. It is up to us all to decide whether we shall bow down to neocolonialism or oppose it.     

What Happened at the First Meeting of the World Archaeological Congress Committee of Ethics?

Herrera reflects on the committee’s deliberations in how to approach developing a framework for ethics in tune with the aims and ethos of WAC. He points out the importance of a foundation of meaningful principles, embedded in the thread of the actions of individuals acting in specific cultural and historical social contexts and based on core values that at the same time acknowledge the contradictions inherent in diverse standpoints. The committee faces major questions of how to define social justice and appropriate ethical behaviour for people and institutions embedded in different social and historical contexts across the globe.     

The Initial Meeting of the WAC Ethics Committee

Audie was struck by how far many had come to attend the meeting at Stanford, making the time together all the more precious. He discusses the challenges of first, determining what WAC stands for by identifying core concepts and foundational principles, many of them embedded in existing WAC documents and, second, of where the organization should draw lines when faced with the contradictions that are a part of most ethical dilemmas. A Code of Ethics would not be expected to draw these lines, but to bring these conflicts and contradictions into sharper focus and provide a dialogue and forum for their discussion. One of the many things Audie contributed to the meeting was a discussion and definition of consultation with Indigenous peoples, based on his many years of experience. Another was helping us put our ideas in a visual form that enhanced our understanding.     

古代陶器的研究视野——有关中国考古学方法的几点思考

本文以史前陶器为例,拓展了陶器研究中的新视野：指出陶器并非只是生活用品或文化序列的标志物,它与自然环境、经济方式、社会组织、意识形态等方面均有着密切的关系。而要真正全面了解陶器所潜藏的各种古代文化信息,就必须首先寻找获取信息的新途径。就史前陶器而言,传统的地层学、类型学方法已不能满足考古学发展的新要求,而自然科学技术、考古统计学、民族考古学、实验考古学则是有效地获得材料的主要途径。从某种意义上说,考古方法体系的陈旧比考古理论的滞后更加不利于中国考古学的健康发展。     

Eavesdropping on a Global Conversation

How do we negotiate our own positions as locally situated archaeologists in relation to a global discipline? On the one hand, we belong to a worldwide community of scholars, practitioners and activists whose conversations and debates crisscross national boundaries, continents, hemispheres and social classes. On the other hand, we are positioned in specific, local contexts through out national and institutional affiliations, which themselves are variously situated in relation to the fault-lines and cleavages that divide out world: North and South, West and non-West, developed and under-developed economies, and members of dominant and subaltern national groupings. These different forms of insertion often play a key determining role when it comes to the kind of archaeology that we practice, and our access to resources and networks. One of the strengths of WAC as an organization is that it pays close attention to the different ways in which we are situated as archaeologists, and thinks creatively around how to address this. One demonstration of this in practice is the WAC list-serve, where as a subscriber one eavesdrops on a global conversation, around a fascinating range of issues. Archaeologies has a new look and a new publisher! My co-editor, Anne Pyburn, and I are delighted to announce that Archaeologies has moved to Springer Press. The move has many potential benefits for WAC members, and takes the journal into the mainstream of scholarly publishing.     

关于文化因素分析方法在青铜文化研究实践中的思考

从诸多融合型青铜器产生的文化背景来看,融合型青铜器是由某种考古学文化族群将其自身的土著文化因素与外来的文化因素杂糅、结合而创造出的一种新型器物,不能把融合型青铜器的形制和纹饰特征截然割裂开来。融合型青铜器在某一考古学文化分布范围内的出土频率是判断其文化归属的重要依据之一,至于那些分布在中原青铜文化区边缘地带且文化因素十分复杂的无陶铜器墓,其地方特色浓郁的青铜器以及葬制、葬俗是判断其考古学文化归属的重要因素。     

Contacts under the lens: Perspectives on the role of microstratigraphy in archaeological research

Achieving an accurate perception of time and context remains a major challenge in archaeology. This paper highlights the potential benefits of microstratigraphic study to address this goal, drawing on case studies from Lower, Middle, and Upper Paleolithic, Neolithic, and Iron Age archaeological sites. First, we discuss the importance of site formation reconstruction and the ways in which current field methods approach the sedimentary record. Then, we focus on both field identification and high-resolution study of stratigraphic contacts, which are ubiquitous in archaeological deposits. Examples are presented to highlight the role of microstratigraphy in characterizing the nature of contacts and their significance for archaeological interpretation. A microstratigraphic approach is especially useful for distinguishing between contacts that originate from changes in depositional processes and contacts that form as a result of post-depositional processes such as pedogenesis, diagenesis, or burning. Further examples show how “invisible” anthropogenic surfaces and different kinds of occupation deposits can come to light at a microscopic scale of observation. Finally, we illustrate cases in which what appeared to be sterile layers in the field yielded anthropogenic elements. In the end, we discuss how archaeological projects might incorporate microstratigraphic analyses and their results within broader research frameworks that prioritize site formation process reconstruction.     

Geochemical impacts to prehistoric iron-rich siliceous artifacts in the nearshore coastal zone

In the Middle Atlantic region of the United States, landscapes drowned by sea level rise contain scores of prehistoric archaeological sites. These sites provide archaeologists with a rare opportunity to investigate various geologic processes. During the transition from a terrestrial to an offshore setting, the materials associated with an archaeological site are exposed to a series of geochemical processes inherent to the formation of tidal marsh. The duration of the geochemical exposure to tidal marsh is largely dependent on the rate of marine transgression. Here we describe the stages associated with the sulfidization and sulfuricization scheme and the impact to iron-rich lithic artifacts from naturally drowned archaeological sites. Sulfidization and sulfuricization should also impact buried archaeological materials as a result of anthropogenic dredge spoil dumping and the creation of man-made tidal marshes along modern coastlines. Our results indicate that the surfaces of an iron-rich artifact, as well as its interior are visually and geochemically altered by prolonged exposure to the anaerobic conditions of a tidal marsh. Not only should researchers be cautious about making lithic material identification on artifacts found within coastal tidal marsh areas, but museum curators should be aware of the damaging impact of long-term aerobic storage. The geochemical tidal marsh scheme that has altered or corroded iron-rich lithic artifacts in the nearshore zone is an expression of a process that has impacted numerous earlier prehistoric sites currently located on the continental shelf or beneath the coastal estuaries around the world.     

关于陈独秀历史观的若干问题

陈独秀不是历史学家,但他的历史观值得我们研究。他视历史学为一门科学,他对中国古史分期、封建社会长期延续的原因、中国近代史的基本线索和科学体系以及近代社会的性质等重大历史理论问题都提出了看法,有的符合唯物史观,具有一定的理论意义和学术影响,有的则缺乏科学性,存在明显的缺陷。陈独秀历史观影响他对中国现实的认识和态度。     

Public Challenges and the Private Ways of State Archaeology: the Case of Greece

Abstract

Since its emergence Greek archaeology has been run exclusively by the state for political and economic reasons. The relevant legislation has always granted the Archaeological Service enough power to establish it as one of the most authoritative services in the public sector. I argue that the conditions under which archaeology is practised in Greece are increasingly changing. Agents operating at an international, national and local level are challenging the exclusive rights of the state in archaeological heritage management and demanding their views on protection are acknowledged. An overview of recently undertaken initiatives and research projects, as reported in the press and on websites, demonstrates an increasing demand for a more inclusive and public approach to the management of archaeological heritage. I also argue that Greek archaeologists are aware of the potential value of a public engagement with the discipline, but for different reasons — such as conservatism, bureaucracy and lack of means — do not act on it to the extent that they should. Finally, the paper confronts Greek state archaeology as an exclusive system of archaeological heritage management, and puts forward the importance of the local rather than the global public (i.e. tourism — where the emphasis of archaeological management in Greece currently lies).     

Monitoring the burial environment of terrestrial wet archaeological sites in The Netherlands

Abstract

Monitoring the burial environment of archaeological sites is necessary to assess the success of their preservation in situ. Also, monitoring the state of preservation of actual archaeological remains together with that of their burial environment will further our understanding of the degradation processes acting on archaeological remains in situ. These remains consist not only of objects made from wood, metal, stone, etc., but also of pollen, soil features and even micromorphological features. Although, to date, the precise degradation mechanisms of archaeological remains in situ are not yet fully understood, general agreement exists on which parameters should be monitored in wet terrestrial environments. Also, it has been established that in situ measurements are preferable to laboratory analyses of soil (water) samples. In practice, it is difficult to find suitable monitoring equipment for in situ measurement as it must meet many requirements: an in situ measuring principle; stable for a period of at least several months; robust for use in the field; and equipped with a datalogger. A suitable principle exists for measuring the redox potential, however a simple, robust field instrument with datalogger is not yet available. Monitoring of the water table level, temperature and oxygen content is possible with recently developed, commercially available instruments. Monitoring of acidity is less complex as it does not vary as rapidly as, for example, the redox potential; however, the recommended method is still based on analysing soil samples, which is not acceptable in the long term at archaeological sites.     

An Interdisciplinary Human-Environmental Examination of Effects Consistent with the Anthropocene in the Lower Illinois River Valley

Using archaeological and ecological data of animal communities, and fish communities in particular, we test for evidence consistent with the Anthropocene in the lower Illinois River valley across millennia. Environmental impacts by preindustrialized peoples may be minor compared to current alterations; however, this hypothesis is untested and should be assessed. Using the relative abundance of fish taxa, we tested for differences among archaeological and modern time periods, taking advantage of published zooarchaeological data sets and newly analyzed data. Collections from all archaeological time periods differed significantly from modern collections, but the relative abundance of fishes did not differ significantly among archaeological time periods. Sociopolitical context, material culture, plant-based subsistence patterns, and the use of animal classes shifted temporally, but these differences did not extend to the relative abundance of fish families. Our results suggest that dominating human influences on fish communities did not occur prior to the Late Woodland period in the lower Illinois River.     

Trampling experiments at Cova Gran de Santa Linya,Pre-Pyrenees,Spain: their relevance for archaeological fabrics of the Upper–Middle Paleolithic assemblages

The study of fabrics, that is, the analysis of the orientation and slope of archaeological and sedimentary materials associated with the Middle Palaeolithic/Upper Palaeolithic (MP/UP) transition at Cova Gran shows substantial differences. Archaeological assemblages are characterised by greater isotropy in the fabrics than the sedimentary levels within which they are located, indicating that these differences may be generated by anthropic processes. One of the anthropogenic processes associated with horizontal and vertical displacement of archaeological artefacts is trampling and circulation caused by later occupations. In order to evaluate the effect of movement on materials, we undertook experiments simulating geological and archaeological conditions at Cova Gran. The results show that human trampling does not cause major isotropy in fabrics, but arranges archaeological assemblages towards planar or linear materials according to surface geometry. We were not able to replicate the fabric pattern of materials from the archaeological levels of Cova Gran, suggesting that they must be associated with the activities of human occupation at each level.     

Methods for the extraction of archaeological features from very high-resolution Ikonos-2 remote sensing imagery,Hisar (southwest Turkey)

Archaeological research in the territory of Sagalassos is a multidisciplinary project covering scientific disciplines traditionally linked to archaeology and also new technologies such as very high-resolution remote sensing with sufficient radiometric and spatial resolution (<2.5 m). This paper focuses on the evaluation of GIS-, pixel- and object-based techniques for automatic extraction of archaeological features from Ikonos-2 satellite imagery, which are then compared to a visual interpretation of ancient structures. The study was carried out on the unexcavated archaeological site of Hisar (southwest Turkey). Although all techniques are able to detect archaeological structures from Ikonos-2 imagery, none of them succeed in extracting features in a unique spectral class. Various landscape elements, including archaeological remains, can be automatically classified when their spectral characteristics are different. However, major difficulties arise when extracting and classifying archaeological features such as wall remnants, which are composed of the same material as the surrounding substrate. Additionally, archaeological structures do not have unique shape or colour characteristics, which can make the extraction more straightforward. In contrast to automatic extraction methods, a simple visual interpretation performs rather well. The methods presented in this paper can be applied with variable success to archaeological structures composed of the same material as the surrounding substrate, which is often the case.     

Scholarly Publication and WAC: The Need for a Critical Response

This paper is a response to recent critiques of the World Archaeological Congress (WAC), including its Global Libraries Program. WAC should take greater leadership in addressing the current unequal state of international scholarly publication. Scholars from the global south disproportionately have more difficulty obtaining published works and fewer venues to publish their own research. This paper calls WAC to encourage and support local and non-English publications, open access works and journals, commons-based licensing, and e-repositories.