Comparing Axe Heads of Stone,Bronze, and Steel: Studies in Experimental Archaeology

Abstract

This paper presents inferences based on the results of an experimental project comparing the effectiveness of stone, bronze, and steel axes in felling trees. The study shows that bronze is as efficient as steel for this task, and therefore the two material types can be considered equivalent when comparing technologies. We support the findings of other studies indicating that metal axes are more efficient than stone axes in a number of ways other than effort expended. Other variables that affect tree felling efficiency are discussed. Tree type, tree diameter, and axe type are the most important, but other factors may also be significant. The use of regionally specific estimates for tree felling time is suggested when making cultural inferences based upon experimental data.     

The Russian Steel Industry, 1990-2009

A noted specialist on Russia's industries surveys the restructuring of Russia's steel industry in response to the challenging conditions of the 1990s (collapsing domestic markets, the nonpayments crisis, and insider privatization) and its subsequent stabilization during the early years of the 21^st century due to effective implementation of a "survival model" at many plants. The author examines the major elements of that model, namely an export orientation made possible by relatively low labor and energy costs, reliable access to basic raw materials, a focus on crude (rather than specialty) steel, not inconsequential investment in process modernization, and effective control exercised by new private ownership. The paper's concluding section explores the new challenges faced by the industry due to the global financial crisis of late 2008-2009, and particularly the decline in world steel and company share prices, the extreme tightening of credit, the difficulties of servicing existing levels of debt, and provisions of a government assistance program that appear to preclude major capacity closures as a means of reducing costs. Journal of Economic Literature, Classification Numbers: D290, L610, O140, P230. 3 figures, 1 table, 97 references.     

Spatial Aspects of Capacity Change by U.S. Integrated Steel Producers

This paper examines changes in the location of ore-based steel-makingcapacity in the U.S. over the period 1974 to 1991 using data on each of the 45 ore-based mills that were in operation in 1974. We find that the geographic ddistributions of demand and of competition from minimills and imports were important in determining where capacity reductions occurred and which plants were closed. Technology in use at the plant also affected capacity adjustment. However, we find that regional variation in prices of raw materials were notimportant factors in determining where steel-making capacity was reduced.