Economic integration and industrial location: the case of Spain before World War I

During the second half of the 19th century, Spain's industrialgeography underwent radical change. In Jordi Nadal's words,‘Catalonia became Spain's factory’. This gradualgeographical concentration of industrial activity coincidedwith another process: the integration of the Spanish economy.The purpose of this paper is to analyse the determinants ofthe localization of industrial activity in Spain during thesecond half of the 19th century and the effects of economicintegration on Spain's industrial geography. To this end, wefirst review the historical analysis of these changes and presentevidence on the process of market integration and industrialconcentration by constructing a range of measures of industrialspecialization and geographical concentration. Second, we performan econometric analysis of the determinants of industrial locationat two points in time, 1856 and 1893, using spatial econometricstechniques. Our results are consistent with the hypotheses oftrade theories. During the second half of the 19th century,Spain became an integrated economy and industrial activity wasconcentrated in a limited number of territories characterizedby a comparative advantage in human capital endowments, a favourablegeo-economic position, and initial specialization in sectorsshowing scale economies.     

Nash Mills—The Endless Web Revisited

Abstract

A watermill is known to have existed on the river Gade since the 11th century on the site of Nash Mills, Hertfordshire, where a purpose-built paper mill was constructed in the late 18th century. In 1810 the mill was purchased by John Dickinson, one of the great innovators of the paper industry. The mill evolved significantly during the 19th and early 20th centuries as part of Dickinson's expanding business, which at one stage comprised five mills in the locality. Nash Mills remained in the ownership of John Dickinson and his successors until 1990, ceasing production in 2006, the last of Dickinson's mills to do so. Using documentary and building evidence, this article examines the development of the mill, emphasising the relationships between personalities, events, structures, processes, and changing business and technological influences.     

A graph-based analysis for generating geographical context from a historical cadastre in Spain (17th and 18th centuries)

Abstract

The cabreves are notarial documents prepared between the 13th and 19th centuries in the Catalan and Valencian regions of Spain. These historical records were published before the first cadastral maps and contain geographical information that could help spatially reconstruct historical landscapes. However, these documents have not been used to their full potential mainly because of their semi-structured and complex nature. In this article, we propose a new graph-based interactive methodology for partially reconstructing historical landscapes. We have successfully applied this methodology for reconstructing the historical landscape of the Barony of Sella in the 18th century and the methodology has also helped us locate “El Poblet,” a previously unknown archeological site abandoned after the expulsion of the Moriscos in 1609.     

Watermills: The Origin of the Use of Renewable Hydraulic Energy in Spain

The use of renewable hydraulic energy sources by mankind most likely has its origins in the development of the watermills. To understand the functioning of these mills, this article first reviews, through the analysis of different bibliographical sources, the technical evolution of the machinery used since the appearance of the first watermills to grind cereal grain in the 1st century bc.

Secondly, a particular area of the south-west of Spain, Alcalá de Guadaíra, has been selected for study, whose strategic location as well as its hydrological characteristics gave rise, firstly, to an intensive milling industry, and, later, a famed baking industry, from the late Middle Ages until recent decades. The huge development of these two industrial activities has made Alcalá de Guadaíra an exceptional example in Spain, with 40 watermills in the early 18th century.

Extensive work on site allowed the analysis of the state and types of watermills that still exist in this area, identifying their similarities and differences. Unfortunately, after they fell into disuse, only 28 of these mills remain today; 12 of them are in a relative good state of preservation, seven in an alarming state of ruin and, of the other nine, only some unrecognisable vestiges remain. Some of these mill buildings have been restored recently, although their machinery is missing. Only from old photographs or by visiting mills restored in other areas is it possible to determine how these watermills worked.

Due to the lack of financial resources to carry out physical restoration of the industrial heritage missing in these flour mills, a virtual model of one of them has been developed. This work provides, at least virtually, a reconstruction of the traditional mills which helps promote technological studies and shows how they worked, as part of virtual exhibitions. In addition, a computer application of augmented reality has been developed that any visitor can install on a mobile device to display the virtual reality of the machinery, generated by 3D models, so they can visualise the physical reality that they would have found in the mill.     

Historical Geography of Industry in the Cherepovets Country

The Cherepovets country has historically benefited from a favorable transport geography on the divide between major drainage basins. While the White Sea trade through Arkhangel'sk flourished, the region was situated at the intersection of south-north routes between Moscow and the White Sea and west-east routes between Novgorod and Vologda. After the rise of St. Petersburg, the economic-geographic situation of the region was reoriented toward the Baltic Sea. Industrial development in the region was fostered by the construction of the Tikhvin, Mariinsk and North Dvina waterways in the early 19th century. Metalworks and flour mills, based largely on long-haul raw materials, flourished in the first half of the 19th century. These industries declined when the construction of railroads deprived the region of its favorable transport situation on waterways, and lumbering, sawmills and paper and board production became the principal economic activities. Other industries that developed in the second half of the 19th century on a local raw-material base were glass works. In recent years the regional economy has been dominated by the huge modern iron and steel complex at Cherepovets.     

CONCRETE FILLER-JOIST FLOORS AND THE DEVELOPMENT OF LANCASHIRE COTTON SPINNING MILLS

Abstract

The concrete filler-joist floor was a form of fireproof flooring developed in the second half of the 19th century that came to be used quite extensively in industrial and commercial buildings. Iron, later steel, joists embedded in concrete provided a crude form of reinforcing. This form of flooring came to be adopted in Lancashire cotton spinning mills from the late 1870s, but there has been some confusion over the issue, which this paper seeks to clarify. The Bolton architect J.J. Bradshaw was the first known user. Some mill architects followed this lead, but others preferred forms of brick-arch flooring. Filler-joist floors ceased to be used, both generally and in Lancashire cotton mills, after around 1909 as other forms of reinforced flooring became available. Spinning mill construction moved towards the freestanding steel frame, although reinforced concrete framing was not adopted in Lancashire. Lancashire architects have been seen as conservative. However, it is argued that this was not necessarily a bad thing, and that they were willing to use new methods where these were seen as advantageous.     

Housing the Loom, 1790-1850: A study of industrial building and mechanisation in a transitional period

Abstract

The architecture of the textile mill changed radically during the late 18th and 19th centuries. Influences affecting mill design included the way in which production was organised and the degree to which processes were mechanised. This article examines how the industry developed new building types to accommodate looms. In the early period, handlooms were frequently concentrated in distinctive loomshops. The powerloom, introduced in the early 19th century, presented new problems, and in an experimental period different branches of the industry developed different means of housing the new machines. The single-storeyed shed was the dominant building type adopted for powered weaving, but there were in the silk and tape branches prominent examples of factories in which powerlooms were housed in purpose-built multi-storeyed mills.     

Composition of the Lustre Pigment Used in the Production Of 13th Century AD Raqqa Lustreware from Syria

The very rare find of the relic of the original lustre pigment attached to the glazed surface of a sherd of 13th century ad Raqqa type lustreware from Syria has been analysed using a combination of analytical scanning electron microscopy (SEM), micro‐X‐ray diffraction (XRD) and Rutherford backscattering spectroscopy (RBS). The composition of the pigment relic inferred from these analyses is shown to match those of recipes for lustre production given in the early treatises by Jazbir Ibn Hayyan (c. ad 721–c. ad 815) and Abū'l Qasim (ad 1301). Similarities and differences between this 13th century ad Syrian pigment and pigments used in the ninth century ad in Iraq, in the 14th century ad in Islamic and Hispano‐Moresque Spain, and in the 16th century ad in Renaissance Italy are discussed.     

MILLSTONE PROVENANCING USED IN TRACING THE ROUTE OF A FOURTH-CENTURY BC GREEK MERCHANT SHIP

A Greek merchant ship carrying a cargo of millstones, amphorae and bronze vessels was wrecked at Sec, off Mallorca, Spain. in about 375-350 BC. Geochemical provenancing of the millstones helps in reconstructing the route of the ship and complements evidence from the amphorae. Thirty-eight lava hopper-rubber millstones and one Pompeian-style rotary mill from the ship were sampled for provenancing. The hopper-rubbers are mainly of basalt from the island of Pantelleria off North Africa in the Sicilian channel, one is from Nisyros off the Anatolian coast, and the Pompeian mill is of ignimbrite from Mulargia in Sardinia. The hopper-rubbers are the most westerly examples known in the Mediterranean. and the Nisyros mill represents the first proven instance of millstone transport between the east and the west Mediterranean. The occurrence of the Pompeian mill in a fourth-ceniury BC context is evidence of the use of this type a century earlier than previously thought. The Nisyros mill was probably taken on board at the start of the ship's voyage in the eastern Mediterranean, the Pantellerian mills may have been collected partly as ballast at Pantelleria, and the Mulargia mill was probably picked up at Carthage.     

THE TREASURE OF GUARRAZAR: TRACING THE GOLD SUPPLIES IN THE VISIGOTHIC IBERIAN PENINSULA*

The treasure of Guarrazar, found in the 19th century in Spain, is the most important illustration of the high level of Visigothic jewellery in the Iberian Peninsula. The votive crowns and crosses of this treasure are an arrangement of pierced gold in a Byzantine–Germanic style, decorated with emeralds, garnets, sapphires and other materials. In order to establish the provenance of the gold, we analysed a group of 46 minute samples from the most important pieces kept in Spain for major and trace elements. The combination of PIXE and PIGE with an external 3 MeV proton µ‐beam was used to analyse the samples. Considering the gold sources cited by Pliny the Elder and the composition of contemporary Visigothic coins, we suggest the exploitation of south Iberian mines. Using the same set‐up, we complemented these results with the analysis of 11 emeralds inlaid in items from the Guarrazar jewellery that is kept in France. We suggest the use of European sources unknown to the Romans for these gemstones.     

Early Concrete Structures: Patented Systems and Construction Features

ABSTRACT

Reinforced concrete structures came to Spain in the late-19th century, somewhat after the development of this new construction material elsewhere in Europe. Their introduction was pioneered in industrialized areas, especially Northern Spain, under systems first patented in other European countries. Local constructors built structures under patents with little or no explanations to account for calculation, design, and construction technique. Some of these buildings from the recent past are now listed buildings. This study centres on three construction projects under patented systems: Our Lady of “La Antigua”, Orduña (Monier system), “La Ceres” flour mill, Bilbao (Hennebique system), and Alhóndiga, Bilbao (Blanc system). Preliminary structural studies analyzed morphology, reinforcements, concrete strength and pathological processes in each structure. Their results are compared with information taken from the patent systems in use at the time. This useful information on the structures, which may be expanded in future research, clearly describes the relationship between patent specifications and reality.     

A Study on the Evolution in Design and Calculation of Iron and Steel Structures over the Mid 19th Century in Western and Central Europe

ABSTRACT

The design of metallic structures in the 19th century is a subject topic of much admiration, as many emblematic structures that are currently withstanding the test of time have become part of our built cultural heritage. Knowledge on the assumptions and design procedures available at that time is of importance to structural engineering nowadays. It allows for the understanding, maintaining and safe extending of the service life of historical metallic structures. The goal of this article is to describe the evolution in the design and calculation of metallic structures during the second half of the 19th century, with focus on Western and Central Europe. Special attention is paid to the similarities and differences between the 19th century design rules and the current structural design standards. Based on a literature survey, the evolution in terms of load definition, calculation methods, material properties, and verifications are described. Different design aspects are illustrated through a case study: The Garabit viaduct in France.     

Transformation of forest policy regimes in Finland since the 19th century

In this paper, interpretations of sustainable forestry are investigated against the historical background of transformations in the industrial utilisation of forests. Three distinct forest policy regimes in Finland since the 19th century are identified. First, the introduction of the German forestry model, with the central notion of sustained yield, and the establishment of the Finnish Forest Service took place simultaneously in the latter half of the 19th century. These actions aimed at changing patterns of local forest use considered detrimental to long-term forest utilisation. Second, a national forest sector was established during the 20th century. Industrial forestry was seen as a guarantee of economic independence for the new nation-state. Third, during a recent phase the influence of non-governmental organisations and international forest industry companies has increased, and traditional power relations have changed as issues such as biodiversity, forest certification and global investments have been introduced to the debates. It is concluded that the recent transformations in forest management should be read as transformations in industrial forestry rather than as abandonment of industrial forest use models; the legacy of the 19th century German forest science still prevails in forest management.     

THE SEISMICITY OF THE MARMARA SEA AREA 1800–1899

The paper presents an extended summary of the most important earthquakes of the 19th century in the Marmara Sea region in north-west Turkey. We can find no evidence for a significant earthquake occuring during the first half of the 19th century, a period during which the west terminal of the North Anatolian fault system was much more active further west.This variation of activity with time of segments of fault zones, such as the Anatolian, is typical; the smaller the segment considered the longer the sampling period needed for moment rates and hazard estimates to be reliable. We find that the larger and some of the smaller events of the 19th century are clearly associated with known active faults which have generated earlier and later damaging earthquakes.     

The Achill Yawl: vernacular boats in historical context on Achill Island,Ireland

Achill yawls, originally introduced to Ireland as ships' boats aboard Norwegian merchantmen, developed into distinct working vessels along Achill Island's shores during the 19th century. These boats were subsequently modified for recreational racing in the mid‐20th century. Despite changes to their design, they are often nostalgically viewed as traditional symbols of an Achill islander identity, though their popularity may have been prompted by late‐19th‐century British legislation. The authors take an ethnographic approach in interpreting Achill yawls over time, contextualizing their social functions through an exploration of primary historical and photographic archives, extant vessels, and interviews with Achill islanders. © 2010 The Authors     

18世纪欧洲关于古典世界历史的学术

18世纪欧洲的古史研究继承了文艺复兴的遗产,在文献搜集和整理、史实考订、考古学和碑铭学等领域都取得了一定的进展。法国和英国学者在此基础上,撰写了一批多卷本、大部头的古代史、希腊史和罗马史著作。虽然这些著述的质量无法与19世纪专业史学的成果相比,但它们为19世纪的讨论设定了问题的框架,提出了众多值得重视的看法。学者们经世致用的精神,为后世树立了良好榜样,对当时实际的政治生活和思想发展都产生了一定影响。     

Excavations at the Saxon Monastic Sites of Wearmouth and Jarrow,co. Durham: an Interim Report

THE IMPORTANCE of the archaeological evidence for the horizontal-wheeled mill in Ireland has tended to obscure and inhibit research into the introduction of its counterpart, the vertical- wheeled mill. The latter is normally associated with the coming of the Cistercians and the Anglo-Normans to Ireland, although no-one has ever attempted to explain why this was so. The validity of these claims is re-examined below in the light of recent archaeological evidence from Ireland, where it can now be demonstrated that both horizontal- and vertical-wheeled mills were in use as early as the 7th century A.D.¹     

The So‐called Venetian Enamelled Copper Artworks of the Italian Renaissance: the Technology and Provenance of the Enamels—an Analytical Approach

The so‐called Venetian enamelled coppers are a group of objects produced in Italy during the 15th century. Up to now, about 300 objects have been recognized in private collections and in European and US museums. At the end of 19th century, a Venetian origin was suggested, but their provenance is still debated. In this study, the enamel compositions from 22 enamelled copper products from Italian and French collections have been analysed by invasive and non‐invasive techniques. A comparison of the results with Tuscan and Venetian glass databases reinforces the suggestion of a Tuscan (most probably Florentine) origin for these works of art.     

Changing Notions of Authenticity: Presenting a Castle Over Four Centuries

Bolsover Castle is a 17th‐century mock‐medieval castle built for the Cavendish family. First impressions suggest that its Pillar Parlour has survived with little alteration for nearly four centuries. In reality, there have been minor but telling changes to its fabric. The 18‐century Cavendishes venerated the castle as a shrine to their ancestors. Bolsover’s 19th‐century tenants recreated a romantic Olden Time appearance. The public bodies responsible for the castle in the 20th century used archaeology to reconstruct its 17th‐century form. In each case, these custodians aimed to present the site ‘authentically’, but their work reveals their own contemporary readings of the castle’s history. This evidence, gathered for a Conservation Plan, allowed English Heritage’s re‐display of the castle (1996–2001) to take a more reflective and positive approach to creating new meanings. This use of history to create local important meanings should give good cheer to those managing similar small but significant sites across the world.     

A Box Containing Carpenter's Accessories from The Akko 1 Shipwreck,Israel: Archaeometallurgical Analysis of Surviving Ironwork

The Akko 1 shipwreck was an Egyptian armed vessel, built at the beginning of the 19th century. A wooden saw handle and a box containing iron nails and two split pins were discovered towards the stern. Given their function, location and context, these were part of the ship's carpenter's tools and accessories. A methodology was developed for conducting systematic metallurgical analysis in order to understand the manufacturing process of the surviving ironwork items, as well as to enlarge our knowledge regarding ironworking technologies during the early 19th century. Such methodology may assist in the future understanding of the technological evolution of similar wrought‐iron objects. The results demonstrated that the artefacts have a wrought‐iron heterogeneous microstructure and were manufactured by hot‐working prior to surface hardening by pack carburization.