SOURCING OBSIDIAN FROM NEOLITHIC ÇATALHÖYÜK (TURKEY) USING ENERGY DISPERSIVE X‐RAY FLUORESCENCE*

This paper details the chemical sourcing of 42 obsidian artefacts from a single Neolithic structure at Çatalhöyük (central Anatolia), using Energy Dispersive X‐Ray Fluorescence (EDXRF). The chemical signatures of the samples match those of two geological sources in southern Cappadocia: East Göllü Da? and Nenezi Da?. The data provide a counterpoint for previous analyses at the site, and suggest possible intra‐community distinctions with regard to shifts in raw material procurement and technical change.     

PHYSICOCHEMICAL COMPOSITIONAL ANALYSIS OF CERAMICS: A CASE STUDY IN KENTING,TAIWAN*

The composition of ceramics does not just reflect the component of some specific, unprocessed, geological, raw material source, but also certain forms of human behaviour involved in its manufacture. The purpose of this research project is to apply the acid‐extraction chemical method, complemented by a thin‐section petrographic study, to the compositional analyses of certain local ceramic collections (mainly from several sites in the southern Taiwan area). The results present the raw materials that the ceramic manufacturers of the two cultural traditions (O‐laun‐pi Phase II and Phase III–IV), which overlapped temporally, used. These materials came from the same sources, but the ceramics were manufactured in different ways. Particularly, the people of O‐laun‐pi Phase III–IV also procured certain materials from either local sources or from somewhere in eastern Taiwan to make their pots. The results also indicate that there might have been a variation in terms of their manufacture among sites of the same cultural tradition.     

PETROGRAPHIC AND GEOCHEMICAL EVIDENCE FOR LONG‐STANDING SUPPLY OF RAW MATERIALS IN NEOLITHIC POTTERY (MENDANDIA SITE,SPAIN)

Pottery from the Neolithic Mendandia site has been studied. The radiocarbon dating of the site corresponds to a range of dates from 7488–7546 cal bc to 5283–5437 cal bc : the first occurrence of pottery is dated at 5968–6040 cal bc for the lower level III, and up to 5386–5560 cal bc for level II. The antiquity of the potsherds places them within the oldest pottery production sequences in the Iberian Peninsula, which adds to the interest of this study. Ten potsherds from level II and five from level III are analysed for their petrographic and chemical characterization. The petrographic data show two different methods of raw materials manufacture—intentionally tempered pottery (ITP), using calcite and/or limestone and grog, and naturally or non‐intentionally tempered pottery (NTP). According to the matrix paste features, on the basis of the amount, shape, and average or size range of the mineral inclusions, clayed (type A) and sandy (type B) paste types were established and related to two different source areas. The chemical features also indicate two raw material sources and are in agreement with the petrographic paste types. The absence of significant chemical and mineralogical differences between the pottery from levels II and III suggests two contrasting areas for raw materials supply that lasted for at least 600 years.     

THE DETERMINATION OF BRICK PROVENANCE AND TECHNOLOGY USING ANALYTICAL TECHNIQUES FROM THE PHYSICAL SCIENCES*†

This work applies established analytical techniques from the physical sciences to Irish brick, in order to gather evidence of ceramic technologies, provenance and sources of raw materials. Petrographic microscopy, X‐ray diffractometry and scanning electron microscopy with an energy‐dispersive X‐ray diffraction attachment were used to study the brick of Rathfarham Castle, Dublin, built c. 1618, where clay brick was introduced in 1771. Local clay was fired in the laboratory and analysed in a similar manner. The petrography of the pointing mortar was studied in order to gather evidence of ceramic provenance. This paper concludes that the brick was hand‐ moulded with a silica‐based, predominantly non‐calcareous clay of glacial origin, gathered locally, including fluxes and a high percentage of non‐plastic material. The mineralogy and petrography of the brick, together with the presence of pebbles and a coarse matrix, suggest that the raw clay was probably gathered from a glacial deposit. The presence of abundant pebbles and colour inhomogeneities suggests a lack of processing of the raw clay. The brick was probably fired in clamps at top firing temperatures ranging from 750°C to above 900°C. Transformation of limestone temper involving the breakdown of calcite and the generation of calcium silicates, and the new formation of plagioclase, high‐temperature quartz, hematite and spinel were revealed. The presence of spinel in ‘hot spots’ indicates that fuel was added to the raw clay in order to assist firing.     

VARIETIES AND SOURCES OF ARTEFACTUAL OBSIDIAN IN THE MIDDLE STONE AGE OF THE MIDDLE AWASH,ETHIOPIA*

Recent investigation of the geochemical provenance of obsidian artefacts from spatially and temporally variable archaeological sites in Ethiopia has shown the diversity of geological sources and concomitant differences in the transport of raw material to archaeological sites, thus allowing reconstruction of the utilization of raw material by early hominids as well as recent humans. We recognize 30 compositionally different obsidians that were used at the Middle Stone Age (MSA) archaeological sites of Aduma (A8), Halibee Herto, Aladi Springs and Porc Epic in the Middle Awash region. Probable sources of nine of these obsidians are Adokoma, Ayelu, Ida'ale, Assebot, Asboli, Gira‐Ale and Kone. Many compositional types are confined to a single site, but others are shared between sites, although shared obsidians between sites more than 300 km apart are exceptional.     

ROMAN GLASS‐MAKING AT COPPERGATE,YORK? ANALYTICAL EVIDENCE FOR THE NATURE OF PRODUCTION*

Ceramic vessels and associated vitreous debris, excavated at Coppergate, York, UK, have been interpreted as the remains of Roman glass‐making from the raw materials. This paper reports the results of analysis of this assemblage by XRF, ICPS, XRD, SEM– EDAX and thin‐section petrography. These findings suggest that some ceramic vessels, used as crucibles, have been subjected to temperatures up to 1200°C, well above the firing temperatures of the local domestic assemblage from which they were selected. Analysis of quartz‐rich debris, intimately mixed with glass in some samples and in others interleaved with glassy phases, indicates partially reacted glass‐making raw materials, with α‐quartz, tridymite and cristoballite phases represented. This could represent evidence either of a failed attempt to frit the raw materials, or a batch that had not fully fused. Variability in the composition of glass at the site is viewed in the light of glass‐making technology, and possible interpretations concerning this episode are discussed in the light of the archaeological evidence.     

First Geochemical ‘Fingerprinting’ of Balkan and Prut Flint from Palaeolithic Romania: Potentials,Limitations and Future Directions

Long‐distance raw material transfers across Romania prior to the Last Glacial Maximum have previously been inferred from either visual and/or petrographic observations of East Carpathian sites. We investigated the potential to ‘fingerprint’ flint from archaeological sites at Mitoc‐Malu Galben and Bistricioara–Lut?rie III in Eastern Romania, using in situ high‐precision analyses of 28 major, minor and trace elements determined by laser ablation – inductively coupled plasma – mass spectrometry (LA–ICP–MS) in combination with multivariate statistical analysis. Our results suggest that geochemical analyses have the ability to distinguish between different geographical sources but are unable to positively associate flint artefacts from archaeological contexts to these geochemical groups. The mismatches of signatures between artefacts and geological materials, however, raise new questions and open unforeseen perspectives.     

Radical changes in Islamic glass technology: evidence for conservatism and experimentation with new glass recipes from early and middle Islamic Raqqa,Syria*

The chemical analysis of excavated glass fragments from dated archaeological contexts in Raqqa, Syria, has provided a detailed picture of the chemical compositions of artefacts deriving from eighth to ninth and 11th century glassmaking and glassworking activities. Evidence for primary glass production has been found at three excavated sites, of eighth to ninth, 11th and 12th century dates; the first two are discussed here. The 2 km long industrial complex at al‐Raqqa was associated with an urban landscape consisting of two Islamic cities (al‐Raqqa and al‐Rafika) and a series of palace complexes. The glass fused and worked there was presumably for local as well as for regional consumption. Al‐Raqqa currently appears to have produced the earliest well‐dated production on record in the Middle East of an Islamic high‐magnesia glass based on an alkaline plant ash flux and quartz. An eighth to ninth century late ‘Roman’/Byzantine soda–lime recipe of natron and sand begins to be replaced in the eighth to ninth century by a plant ash – quartz Islamic soda–lime composition. By the 11th century, this process was nearly complete. The early Islamic natron glass compositional group from al‐Raqqa shows very little spread in values, indicating a repeatedly well‐controlled process with the use of chemically homogeneous raw materials. A compositionally more diffuse range of eighth to ninth century plant ash glass compositions have been identified. One is not only distinct from established groups of plant ash and natron glasses, but is believed to be the result of experimentation with new raw material combinations. Compositional analysis of primary production waste including furnace glass (raw glass adhering to furnace brick) shows that contemporary glasses of three distinct plant ash types based on various combinations of plant ash, quartz and sand were being made in al‐Raqqa during the late eighth to ninth centuries. This is a uniquely wide compositional range from an ancient glass production site, offering new insights into the complexity of Islamic glass technology at a time of change and innovation.     

A SYSTEMATIC APPROACH TO THE DEFINITION OF SOURCES OF RAW MATERIAL

This paper argues the importance of the contribution that multivariate statistical techniques can make to the analysis of data from trace element characterization of sources of raw material and of artefacts. A threephase analysis is outlined: for the delimitation of sources of the raw material; the representation of the interrelationships of these sources; and the systematic and explicit allocation of artefactual material within the available universe of source groups. A model is developed using obsidian from New Zealand sources and presented as an example of the method.     

A Discussion on the Emergence and Development of Ancient Chinese Artificial Barium Copper Silicate Pigments from Simulation Experiments

The ancient Chinese barium copper silicate minerals mainly comprise Chinese purple (BaCuSi₂O₆) and Chinese blue (BaCuSi₄O₁₀), which were widely used from the late Warring States Period to the late Eastern Han Dynasty. In order to clarify the raw material of the pigment, a series of simulation experiments was conducted to produce Chinese purple pigment under varying mineral conditions. The minerals that we applied in the experiment were quartz as the source of silicon, malachite and copper oxide as the sources of copper, barite and witherite as the sources of barium and lead oxide as the source of lead. Simulation experiments showed that the barium copper silicate minerals and the purple pigment can be produced easily when witherite is used as the barium‐containing raw material. From the perspective of mineral resources, the birth of the ancient Chinese pigment associated with a unique barium mineral resource. The Chinese copper‐based pigments are assumed to have been developed independently and are presumably an outcome of historical developments in glazing techniques.     

CLAY RESOURCES AND TECHNICAL CHOICES FOR NEOLITHIC POTTERY (CHALAIN,JURA, FRANCE): CHEMICAL,MINERALOGICAL AND GRAIN‐SIZE ANALYSES*

Many authors have considered pottery manufacturing constraints and sociocultural elements as factors in change in past civilizations over time. The main issue of this research is to better understand the reasons for changes, or choices, in pottery raw materials. The very precise and detailed stratigraphy and cultural succession of occupations is based on dendrochronological data from the lake‐dwelling sites of Chalain (Jura, France). Petrographic, palaeontological and chemical analyses were used to determine the nature and origins of the raw materials used by the Neolithic potters. Stratigraphy and dendrochronological data were used to reconstruct in detail the evolution dynamics of fabric changes. Several raw material sources were identified for many of the pottery groups. Each of them was sampled for qualitative experimental tests of pottery forming. The experimental results show a high variability between the sediments tested. This variability was quantitatively estimated by XRF, XRD, the Rietveld method, calcium carbonate quantification and laser grain‐size analyses of matrices, indirect measures of plasticity. These analytical results allow a better understanding of the differences observed in the experimental tests. On the basis of these experimental and analytical results, changing parameters such as pottery manufacturing constraints, mineralogical characteristics of raw materials and sociocultural factors are considered. In conclusion, all the social and technical parameters, in each archaeological context, must be taken into account for a better understanding of the changes occurring throughout the chronological sequence.     

Chemical and strontium isotope analysis of Yaozhou celadon glaze

To produce useful information about the raw materials used in northern Chinese Yaozhou celadon glazes Chinese glazes (especially the source of the calcium‐bearing flux), Sr isotope analysis has been used for the first time. Yaozhou celadon is one of the most important representatives of northern Chinese greenware. The study has enhanced our understanding of the raw material sources used to make Yaozhou glazes dating from the Tang to Northern Song dynasties. It is highly likely that ‘Fuping stone’ mentioned in the historical record is not the main raw material used to make Yaozhou celadon glazes of the Tang to Northern Song dynasties. The results of ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr analysis of the Yaozhou celadon glazes studied produce relatively consistent ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr isotopic signatures, with a wide variation of relatively high Sr concentrations. This is firm evidence that a calcium‐bearing plant ash was the source of the calcium and of the flux in the Celedon glazes studied, and not, as some have suggested, limestone or ‘Liaojiang stone’. The study had illustrated that the present approach has great potential in providing a new way of reconstructing porcelain glaze technology.     

Plants and Technology: Current and Future Directions

Abstract

Located within the driftless area of southwestern Wisconsin, the Withington site provides a unique opportunity to examine the adaptive responses of Early Paleoindians exploiting this region. With a lithic assemblage dominated by Hixton Silicified Sandstone from sources over 170km to the north, chipped stone technological attributes and raw material diversity suggest that the occupants of the site were highly mobile, employed a mixed organizational strategy of toolstone transport, and possessed a wide knowledge of the lithic and social landscape. While our recent understanding of the early archaeological record of this region has progressed, a lack of published reports continues to hinder the incorporation of data from this area into larger models of Early Paleoindian subsistence and settlement. As part of an on-going research effort to address this, I present here a report and analysis of lithic material recovered from the site.     

NATUFIAN INTERACTIONS ALONG THE JORDAN VALLEY

Abstract

Building on recent observations made by Belfer-Cohen and Goring-Morris, this study proposes that a zone of intensive interaction existed between communities in the Jordan Valley during much of the Early Natufian period (c. 12,500–11,000 cal bc). Recently published data demonstrate distinctive and even unique links between open-air Jordan Valley sites. Whereas some models have utilised specific types of material culture (e.g. bone artefacts or art items) to identify cultural provinces in the Natufian, this enquiry uses multiple categories of evidence (site types, shared artefact types, artefacts with close stylistic similarities, embodied behavioural practices, and raw material movements) to propose a Natufian sub-region in the Jordan Valley. The likely existence of a post-Lisan “Damya Lake” is suggested as a rationale for extensive north–south contexts south along the Rift Valley, especially for the transport of heavy materials such as basaltic rock. In the future, scientific techniques such as the isotopic analysis of human skeletal remains, elemental characterisation of raw material source, and reliable dating of excavated sites will prove to be decisive in evaluating the model.     

Geochemical discrimination of basaltic sources as a tool for provenance analyses of bifacial tools in the southern Levant: first results from the Jezreel Valley,Israel

The determination of groundstone tool sources bears the potential to examine aspects like raw material selection and preference, mobility, trade and exchange patterns, control over resources and long term use of raw material sources. The discovery of the Neolithic/Chalcolithic basanite bifacial quarry of Giv'at Kipod in the Jezreel Valley, Israel, provides the opportunity of raw material centred provenance studies of bifacials in the southern Levant. The basis for reliable provenance analyses is a clear geochemical characterization of the extraction site and its discrimination from other potential sources. To achieve this, the Miocene magmatic rocks of the Jezreel Valley were sampled and analysed by XRF and La-ICP-MS. The geochemical evaluation, combined with cluster analyses, resulted in a clear discrimination of the Giv'at Kipod lava from other basaltic sources in the area. Based on the geochemical field data, a Giv'at Kipod provenance for six bifacial tools found in three archaeological sites dated to the Neolithic and the Chalcolithic periods was established. The results suggest that the quarry was in use for several millennia. This pilot study demonstrates that for provenance analyses lava outcrops in the southern Levant can be geochemically discriminated from each other on a very small spatial scale, on the basis of a detailed field sampling and the application of multivariate methods.     

THE CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF SOME ARCHAEOLOGICALLY SIGNIFICANT FLINT FROM DENMARK AND SWEDEN

Flint was one of the most widely employed raw materials for artefact manufacture in Denmark and Sweden during the Stone Age, and it continued to be used during subsequent periods. Prehistoric flint mining and lithic manufacturing studies in these countries have attracted considerable attention, but there have been no recent attempts to chemically characterize the geological source materials. This paper builds on a pilot study ( Hughes et al. 2010 ) and uses energy‐dispersive X‐ray fluorescence (EDXRF) analysis to determine quantitative composition estimates for nine major, minor and certain trace elements in seven archaeologically significant flint sources in Denmark and Sweden, along with new data on a number of other sources of prehistoric significance. These data provide a geochemical foundation for ongoing research devoted to determining contrasts and continuities in the time and space utilization of flint sources in Scandinavian prehistory.     

COOKING AND PAINTED WARE FROM SAN GIUSTO (LUCERA,FOGGIA): THE PRODUCTION CYCLE,FROM THE SUPPLY OF RAW MATERIALS TO THE COMMERCIALIZATION OF PRODUCTS*

Archaeological excavation at the San Giusto site (Lucera, Italy) has unearthed a Late Antique kiln that was most certainly dedicated to the production of cooking ware. An archaeometric study of numerous specimens of cooking and painted ware found at this site was carried out using optical microscopy, scanning electron microscopy, micro‐Raman spectroscopy, X‐ray diffraction, X‐ray fluorescence, inductively coupled plasma mass and optical emission spectrometry and instrumental neutron activation analysis. The integration of historical–archaeological data with archaeometric data has revealed that these specimens can be attributed to the San Giusto site. Furthermore, the production cycle of this ware can thus be reconstructed: from the diversified supply of raw materials (fluvial and marine sediments), to the relatively complex preparation of the paste, to firing at variable temperatures (600–750°C for cooking ware; 850–1050°C for painted ware).     

Indirect Evidence of Falconry in Medieval Poland as Inferred from Published Zooarchaeological Studies

Although written sources indicate that falconry or hawking was very popular already in early medieval Poland, there is no hard zooarchaeological evidence that would support it. So far, only two studies based on animal remains suggested hawking in medieval Poland. The purpose of this study was to examine all published zooarchaeological reports from all archaeological sites in Poland and check for possible clues of hawking. Altogether, 281 remains of 12 species of diurnal birds of prey were recorded from 38 sites (49 time‐site units) in Poland beginning from the Middle Ages onward. The most frequently found was the goshawk Accipiter gentilis followed by the white‐tailed eagle Haliaeetus albicilla and the sparrowhawk Accipiter nisus. Clues of possible hawking include high status of sites, occurrence of species used in falconry outside their natural ranges, preponderance of females, the presence of sub‐adult specimens and others. It is suggested that surface damage observed on prey bones done by the hawks' beaks and claws may be an extra evidence of hawking. The present study strongly supports the notion that hawking was a very popular activity in medieval Poland. In the future, medieval bone assemblages should always be checked for clues of hawking. The present study may also be used as a source of raw data for other analyses because it includes detailed information on birds of prey from all zooarchaeological reports published so far in Poland. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

ACCESSING PAST BELIEFS AND PRACTICES: THE CASE OF LEMNIAN EARTH*

Lemnian Earth, a medicine in the shape of a stamped clay tablet (sphragis) from Lemnos, northeastern Greece, was much valued in antiquity and in the post‐medieval period as an antidote to poison and a treatment for other ailments. Although it was among the first archaeological materials to be subjected to chemical analysis (in 1807), there is still no clear understanding as to what made Lemnian Earth an effective medicine. We argue that Lemnian Earth, the artefact, was not the same as Lemnian Earth, the raw material. We suggest a composition for the artefact by scrutinizing the documentary evidence for its properties and by considering the geochemical processes that led to the formation of the raw material and the ritual relating to its extraction. The study of the latter highlights the need for archaeological materials scientists to recognize ritual as a possible manifestation of physical and chemical processes carried out within the framework of past beliefs and practices.     

THE HALLATON INGOT: SILVER IN IRON AGE BRITAIN

This article is a case study of the detailed contextual and scientific analysis of a single object, moving beyond a conventional object biography to consider flows of materials and shifts in meaning and value. The object is a simple triangular silver ingot from the Late Iron Age shrine site at Hallaton, Leicestershire, UK. Scientific analysis is used to uncover the biography of the ingot, and the raw materials from which it was created. The results suggest that the metal which eventually formed the ingot circulated through both Iron Age and Roman social networks, being reworked and transformed several times before it was deposited. Silver emerges as a material which mediated between the Mediterranean world and Iron Age communities in Britain, allowing translation and transmutation between different systems of value in conquest‐period Britain.