The Middle Stone Age of West Turkana,Kenya

Abstract

Research on the origins of Homo sapiens and the development of our species’ unique behavior is focused on the Middle Stone Age (MSA) period in Africa (in comparison with the European Upper Palaeolithic). Although archaeological and paleontological fieldwork in the Turkana Basin in northwestern Kenya has contributed greatly to our understanding of human evolution in Africa, the Basin's MSA archaeological record remains poorly known. We report on a reconnaissance of MSA sites in West Turkana, Kenya, which included known archaeological/paleoanthropological localities at Eliye Springs and Kabua Waterhole (Kadokorinyang). A newly-discovered site, Nakechichok 1 (GdJh 5), preserves MSA tools stratified beneath Late Stone Age assemblages. The MSA lithic artifacts from Nakechichok 1 differ from those known from other MSA localities in nearby regions, and, they expand the known scope of MSA variability in the Turkana Basin, demonstrating that the MSA is not “missing” in this region, but just hard to find.     

IBERIAN CERAMIC PRODUCTION FROM BASTI (BAZA,SPAIN): FIRST GEOCHEMICAL,MINERALOGICAL AND TEXTURAL CHARACTERIZATION

Ceramic fragments from the archaeological excavation of the Iberian–Roman city of Basti (Spain) were studied from a geochemical point of view and by applying a statistical tool to X‐ray fluorescence data to discover similarities between ceramic materials. The analysis of these samples was completed by performing a mineralogical analysis, textural observation, and by characterizing the porous system and the colour of the pieces. Our results enabled us to identify the source area of the clayey raw material in the surroundings of Basti and to estimate the firing temperature of the ceramics. Differences in the chemistry were confirmed by characteristics of the pastes and the mineralogical composition of the pieces. Some samples show black cores, which would suggest the presence of organic matter in the raw material and fast firing of the ceramics. The main types of temper were quartz grains and gneiss fragments, although carbonate grains were also identified. Our evidence suggests that most of the samples were well fired. New silicate phases were found to be present in several samples. The mercury intrusion porosimetry verified and confirmed the firing temperature of non‐carbonated samples. Colorimetry showed that the colour of the ceramics varied according to the amount of CaO that they contained.     

PROVENANCE STUDIES OF CHALCOLITHIC OBSIDIAN ARTEFACTS FROM NEAR LAKE URMIA, NORTHWESTERN IRAN USING WDXRF ANALYSIS

In 2005–2006 we initiated a major archaeological survey and chemical characterization study to investigate the long-term use of obsidian along the eastern shores of Lake Urmia, northwestern Iran. Previous research in the area suggested that almost all archaeological obsidian found in this area originated from the Nemrut Daĝ source located in the Lake Van region of Anatolia (Turkey). More recent research on obsidian artefacts from the Lake Urmia region has identified a significant number of obsidian artefacts with compositions different from the sources near Lake Van. This suggests that the obsidian artefacts are from a yet to be identified geological source, but possibly one that was not too distant. In order to advance our knowledge of Iranian obsidians and eventually refine provenance criteria we analysed obsidian from 22 Chalcolithic sites and some source areas. The compositions of both obsidian source samples and artefacts were determined using wave length dispersive X-ray fluorescence spectrometry (WDXRF). This paper presents results from the trace elemental analysis of both geological and archaeological obsidians, providing important new data concerning the diachronic relationship between lithic technology and raw material in the north-west of Iran.     

Some Evidence for Seasonality amongst Later Stone Age Hunter-gatherers in Southern Africa

Abstract

The Later Stone Age (LSA) period in Southern Africa is characterised by a succession of cultural traditions. The LSA hunter-gatherer populations were ancestral to the present-day San. They moved around in small bands, within a semi-fixed territory visiting open air and shelter sites to coincide with available resources.

The hunter-gatherers filled every niche in the environment, including the high mountains, deserts and semi-deserts, bush savanna and grass lands. They were well aware of the food sources available in their territories during the course of a year and utilized these opportunities. As winters in southern Africa are relatively mild, and most regions have foods available throughout the year, seasonality is difficult to demonstrate.

In only a few instances there is some evidence for seasonal use or seasonality. Age profiles of seals at Elands Bay Cave suggest short occupation periods during late winter and early spring. In the high mountains of South Africa and Lesotho, where winters are cold and frost and snow common, the faunal and floral remains suggest occupation during late spring, summer and early autumn. Abbot's Cave in the semi-arid central Karoo was used as a hunting lodge during September, relating to the lambing season and migratory behaviour of springbok (Antidorcas marsupialis).     

Four middle Holocene pillar sites in West Turkana,Kenya

Abstract

Megalithic architecture is associated with spread of food production in many parts of the world, but archaeological investigations have focused mainly on megalithic sites among early agrarian societies. Africa offers the opportunity to examine megalithic construction—and related social phenomena—among mobile herders and hunter-gatherers with no access to domestic plants. In northwest Kenya, several megalithic "pillar sites" are known near Lake Turkana, but few have seen systematic research. This paper presents the results of archaeological survey and test excavations at four pillar sites in West Turkana 2007–2009, and describes the sites' spatial arrangements, depositional sequences, and material culture. Radiocarbon dates suggest that pillar sites near Lothagam were used ca. 4300 B.P. (uncalibrated), just as early herding began near Lake Turkana, while pillar sites near Kalokol may be slightly later (ca. 3800 B.P.). Comparisons of material cultural point to possible differences in use of contemporaneous pillar sites, and suggest monumental architecture had multiple forms and purposes in middle Holocene Turkana.     

TRANSPORT AND SUBSISTENCE PATTERNS AT THE TRANSITION TO PASTORALISM,KOOBI FORA,KENYA

The Turkana Basin in Kenya has an extensive record of Holocene activities relating to mobility and economy of foraging and herding communities. Obsidian is only known from a few key localities in northern Kenya. As such, the use of obsidian as a toolstone material, commonly used during the mid‐Holocene, provides one way to trace exchange, interaction and population movements during the transition to pastoralism. We employ X‐ray fluorescence to characterize obsidian artefacts from four Pastoral Neolithic assemblages. Data reveal a highly mobile and diversified population that used watercraft to access and transport obsidian resources. Specifically, the use of the North Island obsidian source in Lake Turkana indicates that boat use was significant during this transitional period. The incorporation of watercraft transport and aquatic resources in our analyses of Pastoral Neolithic sites affords a greater understanding of subsistence, mobility and economy in this important period in East African prehistory.     

NON‐DESTRUCTIVE PORTABLE GAMMA RAY SPECTROMETRY USED IN PROVENANCING ROMAN GRANITOID COLUMNS FROM LEPTIS MAGNA,NORTH AFRICA*

Portable gamma ray spectrometry (PGRS) provides a non destructive means to analyst quantitatively large artefacts, such as building stones, for the radioelements K. U and Th. Nine Raman granitoid columns at the Leptis Magna Ruins in Windsor Great Park, London, were measured in situ by PGRS. Corrections for the environmental background contribution to the gamma ray flux measured, and for the shape and size of the columns, are described Comparison of the PGRS data with a radioelement data base for Roman granite sources indicates that most of the columns originated in the Troad area of Turkey. Two columns could not be unambiguously provenanced using PGRS alone because there is insufficient difference between radioelement concentrations in certain sources. However, non‐destructive measurements of magnetic susceptibility, used in conjunction with PGRS data, suggest that these two columns originated in the Kozak Daǧ, also in Turkey.     

Crema Ware and Elite Power at Monte Albán: Ceramic Production and Iconography in the Oaxaca Valley,Mexico

Abstract

During the Terminal Formative, or Monte Albán II period (ca. 100 B.C.-A.D. 200), the Zapotec state was centered in the Oaxaca Valley, Mexico. Reassessment of ceramic data from excavations at the Zapotec capital of Monte Albán, in conjunction with data acquired from recent investigations at a secondary center (Cerro Tilcajete) and a tertiary center (Yaasuchi) in the Oaxaca Valley, sheds light on the production and distribution of elaborately decorated crema- (cream-) paste ceramics. This analysis suggests that such ceramics were produced at Monte Albán as prestige goods and distributed to local elites residing at administrative sites throughout the valley. The distribution of decorated crema vessels—and in particular, bowls bearing incised lightning motifs associated with the preeminent Zapotec deity, Cociyo—via gift-giving networks represented an attempt by elites at the capital to control local elites and integrate them into the regional sociopolitical hierarchy. Data from Cerro Tilcajete and Yaasuchi indicate that local elites at these centers acquired and used some crema vessels. These vessels were fewer in number and less varied than the cremas enjoyed by elites at the capital. Elites at Cerro Tilcajete and Yaasuchi apparently sponsored the local production of ceramics intended to imitate crema vessels. By supplementing the flow of true crema ceramics from Monte Albán, the production of local imitations would have subverted attempts by elites at the capital to control both the distribution of prestigious ceramics and the subordinate elites who desired them. This regional study of ceramics in the Oaxaca Valley illustrates the intersection of economy and ideology in state society, as well as the role that prestige goods can play in the creation and legitimization of—as well as resistance to—institutionalized sociopolitical difftrences.     

RAW MATERIALS OF GLASS FROM AMARNA AND IMPLICATIONS FOR THE ORIGINS OF EGYPTIAN GLASS*

Analysis has been conducted on 19 blue glasses from Amarna in Middle Egypt dated to around 1350 BC. The results suggest that these glasses fall into two distinct types: cobalt coloured glasses with a natron based alkali made from local Egyptian materials, and copper coloured glasses with a plant ash alkali, which follow a Mesopotamian tradition of glass making. It is suggested that at least some of this copper/plant ash glass is imported into Egypt during the Amarna period despite extensive local production of cobalt/natron glass. Existing analyses (Lilyquist and Brill 1995) of the earliest glass from the reign of Tuthmosis III (c. 1450 BC) suggest that during this period the same two types of glass are present. Local Egyptian cobalt and natron in these early glasses implies that, despite the lack of archaeological evidence for production sites, glass was produced from its raw materials in Egypt as early as the reign of Tuthmosis III.     

GEOCHEMICAL PROVENANCE OF OBSIDIAN ARTEFACTS FROM THE MSA SITE OF PORC EPIC,ETHIOPIA*

Obsidian geochemical analysis has become an indispensable tool in archaeological research and has wide applications. However, in spite of the abundance of geological and archaeological obsidian, there has been virtually no such investigation in Ethiopia. Recent instrumental characterization of 31 obsidian artefacts from the Middle Stone Age site of Porc Epic and numerous obsidian geological sources show that artefacts were being transported from as far as 250 km away. We believe this has relevance to the understanding of the emergence of modern human behaviour.     

Maize and Bone: Residues of Grinding in Northwestern Argentina*

Archaeometric and archaeobotanical analyses of grinding residues inside an archaeological milling stone tool from the Cueva de los Corrales 1 site in northwestern Argentina are shown. Multiple analytical techniques are used to identify ground substances, and their results are compared and complemented. They give direct and reliable evidence of maize (Zea mays L.) and burned bone grinding in the pre‐hispanic Argentine north‐west, although the latter is little related to milling tasks.     

REVIEW ARTICLE USE-WEAR ANALYSIS: THE STATE OF THE ART

This paper is a review of the recent developments in use-wear analysis. The focus is on some key issues: polish formation, quantification of use-wear, residue analysis and the way these related themes have affected methods of use-wear analysis. A brief history of the development of use-wear analysis is presented and a discussion of blind tests, expert systems (explained at length in the ‘Appendix’) and how use-wear analysis can be incorporated into the chaîne opératoire approach to the interpretation of Stone Age sites.