罗马共和国后期行省治理的弊端与规范

行省治理是罗马共和国后期政治生活的一个重要内容,直接关乎共和政治的运作与国家的命运。然而,在行省治理过程中,作为实际治理者的罗马官员滥用权力,通过多种途径大肆搜刮钱财,成为行省治理中的首要弊病。为遏制这种弊病,规范行省治理,罗马当局围绕着官员搜刮钱财现象,不断加强法律建设,呈现出立法条款细致化、诉讼程序固定化以及惩处严厉化的倾向。但是,行省治理制度中总督权力缺乏制衡,荣誉任职的传统观念以及税收体系的混乱等因素为罗马官员滥用权力、非法敛财提供了条件,而相关法律实践过程面临着距离、语言、时间与经济成本等实际障碍,且法庭充斥着腐败与偏见,导致治理局面未因法律建设的加强而得以有效改善。行省治理的失当从行省与共和国政治两个层面加速了共和政治的失序,推动了内战的爆发,进而加速了罗马共和国的衰亡。     

亚述行省制度探析

行省是亚述的地方最高行政机构,在中央对地方的行政统属中发挥承上启下的作用。亚述人运用阿卡德王国开创的行省制度管理被征服地区,其行省体系随着版图的扩大而不断向外拓展,行省成为亚述人巩固军事征服成果的重要手段。行省是亚述的基本行政管理单位,城市、村庄和要塞等为其基层单位,以总督为首的官僚队伍包揽了行省的各项事务。行省不仅是征调赋役的基本单位,还负有维持社会秩序、组织生产和维护邮驿体系之责;但是,行省的军政事务由国王严密控制。总之,行省制度是亚述人控制被征服地区的得力工具。     

行省中的罗马军队:以罗马不列颠为中心

进入帝国时期以后,罗马的扩张活动基本上偃旗息鼓。相应地,元首制时期的罗马军队经历了两个重要变化。一是兵源募选日益本土化,这使军团和辅助军之间的区别日渐淡化。二是行省驻军日益定居化,这使军队作为自成一体的社会具有隔离于非军事区的趋势。由于这两个变化,军队在和平时期的非军事功能日益突出。对不列颠罗马驻军的考察表明,军队对行省的影响主要体现在：军队对城市化进程起重要的推动作用;向军队供应粮食带动了不列颠南方地区的农业发展;军队是普及罗马公民权的重要渠道。关注这些非军事功能有助于更充分地理解作为罗马帝国主义工具的军队。     

本期寄语

<正>本期"古代地中海文明"栏刊出两篇文章。宫秀华、王允的《罗马国家统治制度的创新——西西里行省制度的建立与运作》认为,罗马在通过布匿战争征服西西里岛之后首创其行省统治制度,为罗马在整个地中海地区扩张提供了行政统治架构。倪滕达的《罗马帝国衰落的起点——以琉善对公元2世纪罗马社会的认识为中心》主要依据公元2世纪学者琉善的记述提出,当时的罗马帝国并非如后世学者所断定的那样是全面繁荣的黄金时代,罗马社会业已沉醉于浮华生活,失去了奋发向上的精神气质,衰退已经出现。     

《历史评论》(Revue Historique)2010—2011年论文摘编

1.《罗马的意识形态:西塞罗到奥古斯都之间政治话语的模式》本文通过对共和末期到奥古斯都元首制时期的文本分析,试图证明意识形态概念对罗马社会是有效的。在共和时期,政治参与的基础是美德和与著名氏族之间的关系,而不是基于对未来的展望和某种共同意愿。统治者被赋予保障制度良好运行和公民安全的责任。罗马社会不能设想出别的模式。当危机出现时,首脑要做的是恢复旧事物而非开创新局面。在奥古斯都元首制时期,官方言论有所转变,以便将罗马的命运与这个高贵的人物联系在一起。与此同时,政府组织开始监督各种对立言论。如果说奥古斯都时期还不存在真正的意识形态,它至少表明某种原初意识形态已经出现。     

元朝行省的两个基本特征——读李治安《行省制度研究》

行省是元朝统治时期广泛设立于全国的地方大行政区 ,在中国地方行政制度史上具有重要意义。“省”的本意为宫禁 ,引伸为中枢机要、行政机构的名称 ,因此行省起初是指临时性的中央派出机构 ,取代表中央行使权力之意。它滥觞于魏晋北朝、隋朝、唐初以及金初短期出现过的“行台省” ,到金朝后期再出现时 ,已较频繁地使用行省的简称 (以前通常简称“行台”)。元初的行省性质与金朝类似 ,仍属中央派出机构 ,设置并不稳定。但随着全国的统一 ,行省很快转化成了固定、常设的地方大行政区 ,“掌国庶务 ,统郡县 ,镇边鄙 ,与都省为表里……凡钱粮、兵…     

罗马国家统治制度的创新——西西里行省制度的建立与运作

公元前264年至前146年,罗马与西部地中海区域的强国迦太基展开了一场旷日持久的争霸战争,史称"布匿战争"。战争期间,罗马在征服的"第一块海外土地"——西西里岛上开始建立行省统治制度,从而标志罗马统治制度发生了新变化。本文主要论述罗马在赢得第一次布匿战争胜利之后,尝试性地在西西里建立行省统治,使其成为罗马国家的第一个行省。这一行省的建制及其运作,为罗马在更大规模的扩张中普遍实施行省统治制度提供了一个实际典范,为罗马在整个地中海地区建立统治、维护霸权地位提供了一种长效机制。     

试论古罗马元首制的阶段性特征——以元首人选的变更为例

元首制是古罗马由共和制向君主制转变的中间环节。通过前后对比可以发现,元首制下,随着内、外环境的变化,元首人选呈现出阶段性特征。元首制前期,元老阶层凭借征服者的身份、森严的社会等级制度以及自身的实力垄断了元首一职,而非元老阶层很难通过合法渠道晋升为元首;元首制后期,非元老阶层的将军们以蛮族入侵为契机,凭借军功,依靠军队的支持打破旧有的社会等级制度,成功晋级为元首。     

秦汉官吏称“主”与行政责任

秦汉史料中经常可以看到对某位或某些官员以"主"为中心的称谓界定。官吏称"主",反映出秦汉政府在行政运作中对相关责任人的主与次的区分,是对这些官吏"主要负责人"身份的特意强调。称"主"官吏通常处于统摄全局的职位或需要对某事直接负责,在行政运作中的地位较为核心,比其他官吏承担更多的责任和风险。就称代内容和层级而言,秦汉官吏称"主"主要指涉行政事务的具体经办者、经办者的直接领导、间接主管以及负有监管与连带责任的上级等等。秦汉政府通过称"主"来明确与这些岗位相关的行政责任,以强化官员的责任意识、提高行政效率。     

两种自治观的并存与消解:云南省联省自治时期县议事会实际运作之考察

按照《云南全省暂行县地方自治章程》之规定,县议事会有监督县知事行政、审核县预决算、决议县单行规则及其他县自治事项等权力,但实践中则是传统的县政结构使这些制度设计均落了空。其原因除了学界经常强调的官治与自治之冲突外,还因团体自治与社会自治两种自治观的并存与冲突,此两种自治观的冲突与消解现象非联省自治时期的云南所独有,它贯穿着自清末至实施新县制之前的中国县地方自治史。     

Roman sarcophagi at the lower terrace of Amman Citadel

ABSTRACT

A rock-hewn cave cut out of limestone was accidentally discovered in 2012 during road repairs and maintenance work conducted by Great Amman Municipality on the corner of the street leading to the Amman Citadel. The recommendations were to conduct a salvage excavation at the above-mentioned cave. Therefore, an immediate physical inspection was conducted in order to assess the needs of excavating and to avoid further collateral damage. The campaign for the excavation of the cave took place between 22 February and 10 March 2012. Two limestone sarcophagi from the Roman period were found in the cave. The stone coffin is one of several types of the burial customs known to the Romans whether in the Near East or in their original homeland. The social and economic conditions of the people during the Roman Period determined the quality of their tombs, the funerary rites to be held and the funerary tools accompanying them in the other life. Consequently, people belonging to poor families are deprived of the same quality of services in comparison to their rich counterparts.     

罗马共和国时期的道路建设

罗马共和国时期的道路建设在罗马社会中占有重要地位,也是罗马国家生活中的重要内容之一。罗马道路建设的根本原因在于军事扩张的需要,政治和经济方面的考虑并不多。共和国时期的道路建设主要在意大利本土进行,并呈现出鲜明的特色。这一时期的道路建设对罗马的政治、经济和文化方面都产生了重要的影响,对它进行研究有助于我们从另一角度考察罗马社会。     

波里比阿论古典罗马共和国政制

本文重点探讨波里比阿的混合政体及其与罗马共和国政治生活实际的关系。首先讨论了波里比阿有关单纯政体产生、堕落和循环的理论,在此基础上,考察了他关于罗马共和政体乃混合政体、混合政体相对稳定的观念以及混合性质在罗马政体中的具体表现,并对波里比阿的理论与罗马共和国政治实际之间的关系进行了讨论,指出波里比阿理想化的论述与共和国的实际之间存在一定差距。本文指出,波里比阿已经意识到混合政体像单纯政体一样,注定会走向衰落,尽管速度相对缓慢。他有关斯奇庇奥美德的描述,正反衬了波里比阿时代罗马道德的普遍堕落。     

Two decapitations from Roman Towcester

Two young adult males from a Roman cemetery at Towcester show unambiguous evidence of decapitation In one, the skull had been placed over the lower legs, and in the other, the skull was in its correct anatomical position. The significance of this variation and the reasons for decapitation are discussed. Copyright © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

关于罗马-高卢城市兴起的几个因素

罗马的高卢行省深受帝国城市化运动的影响,在城市兴起与发展的过程中独具特征。在某种意义上,高卢城市的兴起与发展带动了整个帝国城市化运动的发展。促进高卢城市兴起有几个因素,即高卢原有的城市因素——奥必达、希腊殖民地的城市因素和罗马化的城市因素,对这些因素在高卢城市兴起的历史进程中彼此继承改造的关系、融合的过程和具备的创新意义等展开具体分析,有助于认识高卢城市兴起的基本条件和历史动因,进一步加深对罗马帝国城市化运动性质的理解。     

Trace element fingerprinting of ceramic building material from Carpow and York Roman fortresses manufactured by the VI Legion

Trace element compositions of raw clay, fired clay and Roman ceramic building material (CBM) from Carpow Roman fortress, Newburgh, Scotland and the city of York, England have been determined through the use of inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (ICPMS). It is confirmed that the firing of clay does not disturb any of the sample’s trace element composition and that trace element protolith identification is an applicable tool for fingerprinting the source of material used in CBM construction. It is also demonstrated through the particular proportions of LREE/HREE; Th/Co; La/Sc; La/Lu; Eu/Sm values on CBM from Carpow that these material were likely manufactured from clay used in the York Roman tile manufacturing industry, therefore suggesting importation. The transport of CBM from York to Carpow provides a useful addition to known examples of the long-distance shipping of CBM. It is postulated that similar analysis to that conducted here could be used to identify important trade networks within the Roman Empire.     

Fish tanks of eastern Crete (Greece) as indicators of the Roman sea level

The ancient fish tanks and fish traps of Crete are relics of the Roman domination of the island; they were usually constructed near the major urban centers of that period. The direct relationship of their various functional characteristics with past sea levels and the relatively accurate determination of their construction dates establish them as sensitive indicators of sea level change through space and time.     

Analyses of colourless Roman glass from Binchester,County Durham

Forty samples of Roman colourless glass tableware from Binchester, dating from the 1st to mid-3rd centuries AD, were analysed using ICP spectrometry and parallels were sought with similar studies of Roman glass from Colchester and Lincoln [C. Mortimer, M.J. Baxter, Analysis of Samples of Colourless Roman Vessel Glass from Lincoln, Ancient Monuments Laboratory Report 44/1996, 1996; H.E.M. Cool, J. Price, Roman vessel glass from excavations in Colchester, 1971–1985, Colchester Archaeological Report 8, Colchester Archaeological Trust Ltd. and English Heritage, Colchester, 1995; M.P. Heyworth, M.J. Baxter, H. Cool, Compositional Analysis of Roman Glass from Colchester Essex, Ancient Monuments Laboratory Report 53/1990, 1990]. Some samples from the Binchester, Colchester and Lincoln (BCL) groups were re-analysed using energy dispersive spectrometry (SEM–EDS) and the results were used to compensate for the differences in reproducibility between the ICP data sets, so that these could be directly compared. The majority of the glass from all three sites was similar but some distinct compositional characteristics were identified that were specific to certain types of ware. There were differences in the concentration of lead in the samples, which appear to be to some extent chronological. The compositional data for the glass from Binchester, Colchester and Lincoln were also compared to literature data for various types of natron glass produced in the 1st millennium AD.