Managing the risk of climatic variability in late prehistoric northern Chile

The concept of risk management encompasses the diverse strategies employed in preventing and mitigating losses associated with social and environmental calamities. Building on the growing literature on risk, we use archaeological data from the Tarapacá Valley, located in northern Chile, to document the risk-reduction tactics mobilized by the valley’s inhabitants to navigate the increasingly volatile environmental and social conditions of the Late Intermediate Period (AD 1000–1450). With the onset of exceptionally unpredictable environmental conditions after AD 1100, residents of the Tarapacá Valley chose strategies such as increased trade and agricultural diversification and extensification to minimize shortages in staple resources. Threats of raiding and intra-community strife exacerbated the risks associated with subsistence shortfalls. Valley communities elected a number of strategies to curtail conflict-induced risk, including movement of settlements and field systems to defensible locations, construction of walls and other defensive features, and the introduction of plazas. Rock art data suggest that trade was increasingly embedded in ritually sanctioned events involving groups from different ecological zones. While studies of risk have focused disproportionately on environmental hazards, subsistence-related crises are often compounded by social hazards that require their own risk-mitigating strategies, further constraining options for coping with subsistence stress.     

Cluster analysis of the coprolites from antelope house: Implications for anasazi diet and cuisine

This paper reports on a cluster analysis of 155 coprolites from Antelope House, a prehistoric Anasazi site in Canyon de Chelly, Arizona. The analysis revealed three primary clusters; whole kernel maize, milled maize, and nonmaize, which we believe to represent seasonal- and preference-related cuisine. Protein residue analysis on a subsample of the specimens added depth to the analysis.     

Radiocarbon dating of prehistoric hearths in alpine northern Sweden: problems and possibilities

The chronology of prehistoric Sami settlement sites has previously been established by conventional radiocarbon dating of bulk charcoal samples associated with hearths from sunken hut floors (stállo-foundations). Here we present results of a comprehensive dating exercise of stállo-foundations in the alpine area of northern Scandinavia using Accelerator Mass Spectrometry (AMS) radiocarbon dating of charcoal. Over a 3 km² study area, AMS calibrated ages of hearth charcoal from 22 stállo-foundations across 12 sites securely date these features to between cal. AD 640 and AD 1180. Only small variations in age were found between charcoal samples from different areas of a given hearth. Statistical analysis of all the charcoal AMS radiocarbon dates obtained reveals that 12 stállo-foundations across nine sites are contemporaneous and date to the Viking Period (AD 800–AD 1050). The tightly constrained AMS-based chronology of stállo-foundations contrasts with the existing chronology based on conventional radiocarbon analysis, which places these features within a significantly greater time-frame of between AD 600 and AD 1900, with most dates ranging between AD 800 and AD 1350.This discrepancy is likely to result from the necessity of collecting composite hearth charcoal particles, which may originate from different phases of occupation, in order to achieve the required final carbon content for conventional radiocarbon analysis. We argue that the new AMS-based radiocarbon chronology of stállo-foundations presented here supersedes the existing chronology based on conventional (Gas Proportional counting) radiocarbon analysis and we advocate the use of AMS radiocarbon dating in future hearth investigations.     

Last meals inferred from the possible gut contents of a mummy: A case study from Astana Cemetery,Xinjiang, China*

The gut contents of ancient humans have been proven to be the most direct evidence for palaeodietary study. In the Xinjiang region of north-west China, large numbers of mummies are well preserved owing to the extremely dry environment to be found there. Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) combined with multi-archaeobotanical methods, including macrofossil examination, starch grain analysis, phytolith analysis and bran fragments analysis, were applied to investigate the possible gut contents (c.1300 bp by ¹⁴C dating) of a person unearthed at tomb 75TAM601 in Astana Cemetery, which were the public graveyards of the ancient Gaochang people (residents of Turpan, dating from about the third to the ninth centuries ce ), in Turpan, Xinjiang. The result of the FTIR analysis showed that the matrix of the possible gut contents consisted of protein and starch and was characterized as undigested food residue. The white mineral fragments of this sample were from the decomposition products of the skeleton. The microfossil analysis demonstrated that Setaria italica, Panicum miliaceum and Triticum aestivum were the main cereal resources for the last meals eaten by the deceased. Moreover, direct macrofossil evidence also advocates for the importance of the three aforementioned cereal crops and fruits of Cucumis melo and Vitis vinifera in the person's diet.     

The Use of Hunting and Herding Spaces: Stable Isotope Analysis of Late Archaic and Early Formative Camelids in the Tulan Transect (Puna de Atacama,Chile)

We present the results of analysing stable carbon and nitrogen isotopes in camelid remains found at the Late Archaic site TU‐52 (ca. 5000–3800 bp ), the Tarajne Phase site TU‐94 and the Early Formative sites TU‐54, TU‐85 and TU‐122 (ca. 3100–2400 bp ). All of the sites are located in the Puna de Atacama (Northern Chile) along the 14 km Tulan transect, between the head of Tulan ravine (ca. 3000 m.a.s.l.) and the border of the Salar de Atacama (2317 m.a.s.l.). Our aim is to understand how the space was used by hunter‐gatherers and early herders from the beginning of camelid domestication to the consolidation of herding practices. Isotopic analyses were complemented with osteometric data in order to correlate changes in animal size and isotopic values with the initiation of animal husbandry. Isotopic and osteometric results show less variability of δ¹³C and δ¹⁵N values during the Late Archaic and Tarajne Phase, whereas variability is higher during the Early Formative. We postulate that during the latter period, there was more widespread use of hunting and herding spaces along the Tulan ravine, including areas above 3000 m.a.s.l. as result of more consolidated herding practices, while the highlands were used as a complementary space to hold livestock near ritual sites and residential settlements. Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Identifying the sources of Inka period ceramics from northern Chile: results of a neutron activation study

To examine regional patterns of ceramic production and distribution during the era of Inka domination in northern Chile, we determined the elemental compositions of 157 samples of archaeological ceramics and geological clays from the sites of Catarpe and Turi using instrumental neutron activation analysis. We identified two major and three minor composition groups in the ceramics. The major groups, High Cr and Low Cr, are linked to clays from two broad geological contexts within the region, while the minor Low Na group is made up of ceramics imported from northwestern Argentina. The distribution of the composition groups indicates that, in the Catarpe–Turi region, patterns of ceramic production differed for different vessel types: jars were made from clay and temper acquired near the sites where the jars were used, while bowls were made of material coming from more distant sources. The geographical distribution of the analyzed ceramics indicates that bowls were exchanged between Catarpe and Turi in a pattern more similar to tribute/extraction than to market exchange, with Catarpe being the dominant site. The compositional analysis also demonstrates that Inka-style ceramics were being locally produced at sites in this region during the era of Inka domination.     

Gabbroic clay sources in Cornwall: a petrographic study of prehistoric pottery and clay samples

Summary.  This analysis of prehistoric pottery and clay samples from Cornwall demonstrates that the clay used to make Cornish gabbroic pottery in prehistory originated around the gabbro rock outcrop in a small area of the Lizard peninsula. The research uses petrographic and chemical analysis to subdivide the prehistoric pottery into six groups. Owing to the unusual geology of the Lizard these groups can be attributed to specific locations. The most abundant pottery fabric, Typical Gabbroic , was made using coarse clay which is mainly found in a 1 km² area near Zoar. A finer version of this clay, found higher in the soil profile or slightly transported and redeposited, was used to make Fine Gabbroic pottery and an even finer variant called FNS (Fine Non-Sandy) Gabbroic . We identify for the first time here a Loessic/Gabbroic pottery fabric which can be matched exactly to clay found at Lowland Point. Serpentinitic/Gabbroic pottery was made using clay from the gabbro/serpentinite border zone. Pottery made from the Granitic/Gabbroic fabric did not match any clay from the Lizard, showing that gabbroic clay was sometimes removed and made into pottery elsewhere in Cornwall. The main clay source near Zoar was used for clay extraction throughout the Bronze Age and Iron Age for pottery which was traded all over Cornwall. Other gabbroic clay sources produced pottery only during certain periods and exclusively supplied particular settlements, such as the Loessic/Gabbroic fabric which was found only at Gear and Caer Vallack. The results suggest that pottery was produced by several small-scale cottage industries, which may have operated on a seasonal, part-time basis and probably formed only part of a wide range of activities located around the Lizard area.     

Holocene vegetation of the Eastern Sahara: charcoal from prehistoric sites

This paper is dedicated to Prof. Dr K. U. Leistikow on the occasion of his 60th birthday.The investigation of 320 charcoal samples from prehistoric sites in the Eastern Sahara furnishes evidence for a fundamental change of vegetation during the early and middle Holocene. Two ecological regions can be distinguished. In Egypt desert formations prevailed, consisting of the same vegetation elements as today though with a wider distribution, while in the Sudan tropical savannas occurred. Around 7000 bp the Sahelian vegetation zones were 500–600 km north of their present range, and 300–400 km around 5700 bp. The Sudanian flora of Fachi-Dogonboulo in Niger, datedca 7000 bp, points to a simultaneous shift of the vegetation zones in the Eastern and in the Central Sahara. With increasing desiccation from 5200 bp onwards, the savanna formations retreated to the south until their present position was reached by 3300 bp.

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Résumé L'étude de 320 échantillons de charbons de bois provenants de sites préhistoriques du Sahara Oriental, met en évidence un changement important dans la végétation au cours de l'Holocène ancien et moyen. Deux régions écologiques peuvent être distinguées: en Egypte les formations désertiques étaient prédominantes, comprenant les mêmes éléments qu'aujourd'hui mais avec une plus large extension. A la même époche le Soudan connaissait une végétation de savanes tropicales. Autour de 7000 ans bp, la zone de végétation sahélienne se situait à 500–600 km plus au nord de sa limite actuelle, et vers 5700 ans bp elle était encore à 300–400 km. La flore soudanienne de Fachi-Dogonboulo, Niger, datée de 7000 ans bp, indique un déplacement simultané des zones de végétation au Sahara Oriental et Central. Sous l'effet d'un assèchement croissant à partir de 5200 ans bp, les formations de savane se sont retirées vers le sud, jusqu'à atteindre leur situation actuelle vers 3300 ans bp.

     

Investigating foetal and perinatal mortality in prehistoric skeletal samples: a case study from a 3000-year-old Pacific Island cemetery site

The Teouma skeletal sample from Vanuatu represents one of the few truly colonising populations in the Pacific Islands. Therefore, investigating the factors that may have affected foetal/infant mortality in this population is potentially important for understanding the success of settlement in this region of the world. We investigate whether stable isotope analyses of carbon and nitrogen in conjunction with skeletal ageing techniques, can aid in identifying whether the subadults from Teouma died before or after birth in an attempt to understand the potential threats to foetal and infant survival. Multiple skeletal ageing methods using diaphyseal lengths were used to age the young subadults (n = 7). Using regression-based skeletal ageing methods, four of the individuals were aged at around full-term gestation (37–42 weeks gestation), while the remaining three individuals died preterm. The isotope analyses did not assist in identifying the individuals that survived post-birth because none of the subadults displayed the 2–3‰ trophic increase in δ¹⁵N values expected for a breastfed infant, probably as a result of their young age. However, all of the foetal/perinatal individuals exhibited higher δ¹⁵N values in their bone collagen compared with the adult females of the sample, with two of the individuals demonstrating unusually high δ¹⁵N values. The δ¹³C values of the foetuses/perinates did not exhibit the same variation. We explore a number of possible explanations for this elevation of perinatal/foetal δ¹⁵N values and tentatively suggest that this is a result of in utero stress as a consequence of chronic maternal ill-health. The osteological and palaeodemographic evidence supports the assertion that females, foetuses and perinates were susceptible to environmental stress within this colonising population, resulting in early death of the perinatal individuals in addition to early terminations of pregnancy or premature birth possibly caused by infectious and/or metabolic diseases.     

Dental evidence of biological affinity and environmental conditions in prehistoric Trentino (Italy) samples from the Neolithic to the Early Bronze Age

The use of teeth in anthropological analyses has always provided valuable information on the subsistence patterns of human communities, as well as the biological relationships among them. The present study analyses the permanent dentition of several diachronically continuing samples from the Trentino alpine region of Italy from the Neolithic to the Early Bronze Age. The study of both metric and non‐metric dental traits show a strong level of homogeneity from the earlier to the later samples, indicating little external biological influence from surrounding areas. However, the evidence of oral pathology and linear enamel hypoplasia highlights a trend of increase in defects, particularly between the Neolithic and the Copper Age. This has been ascribed to a shift towards more intense agricultural activities and pastoralism, that led to a change in diet and to an increased sedentism. Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

An integrated assessment of archaeobotanical recovery methods in the Neotropical rainforest of northern Belize: flotation and dry screening

This report presents results of a study examining the ancient use of plants at four Late Classic (CE 600-900) Maya rural farmsteads in northwestern Belize. Our research specifically targeted residential middens for macrobotanical recovery. Samples yielded the remains of more than a dozen plant families, representing some genera that do not currently grow in the area. These plants were used in the Late Classic, countering the idea that ancient botanical remains do not survive in Neotropical archaeological contexts. We also evaluated two macrobotanical sample processing methods vis-à-vis one another: flotation and dry screening. Our results indicate that flotation recovered 58% more seeds than dry screening, while dry screening yielded almost twice as much charcoal and other wood as flotation. The divergent quantities in the types of material recovered suggest a comprehensive macrobotanical recovery program should include the use of both processing methods.     

Drowned and deserted: a submerged prehistoric landscape in the Solent, England

A submerged landscape containing worked flint tools has been found at—11m OD in the western Solent. This paper reviews coastal sites in northern Europe and suggests that many similar sites should exist around the coast of southern England; as a result of isostatic shifts and eustatic fluctuations many coastal sites of the Mesolithic will now be submerged. A need has been identified to locate, protect and record submerged sites before they are lost to erosion or development, for which outline proposals are suggested.     

Isotopic Evidence for Marine Consumption and Mobility in the Atacama Desert (Quillagua,Northern Chile)

Archaeological research in the Atacama Desert has recovered evidence of considerable cultural variability. This variability seems to have increased during the Late Intermediate Period (AD 950–1400). The oasis of Quillagua, located at the margins of the Loa River in northern Chile, between the Andes and the coast (70 km from the Pacific Ocean), has shown important evidence regarding this cultural diversity. The variety in the archaeological evidence found at Quillagua has been interpreted as the result of two different cultural influences at the oasis: the Pica‐Tarapacá who occupied the coastal and inland regions to the north of Quillagua and the Atacama who occupied the oasis and fertile areas southeast of Quillagua. Here, we present the results of stable carbon, nitrogen and oxygen isotope analyses of 23 individuals recovered from the Cementerio Oriente in Quillagua, in order to test whether the observed cultural variability is also reflected in diet and mobility patterns. Results from carbon and nitrogen isotope measurements indicate the importance of marine protein, as well as a contribution of maize in the diet of some individuals. Four individuals show low δ¹⁸O values, suggesting a possible highland or non‐local origin, whereas values for the remaining individuals are consistent with lowland populations. Together, the results support the idea that the Quillagua oasis represented an important site of interaction between the Tarapacá and Atacama cultures, with close contacts with the coast but also with the presence of individuals from the highlands. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Mummies, maize, and manure: multi-tissue stable isotope analysis of late prehistoric human remains from the Ayacucho Valley, Perú

This paper reports the δ¹³C and δ¹⁵N values of bone collagen, muscle and skin from several late prehistoric–early colonial (AD 1490–1640) mummies from Perú's Ayacucho Valley. The mean of the δ¹³C and δ¹⁵N values of bone collagen are −11.5 ± 1.4 and 11.1 ± 0.7‰, respectively. The mean of the δ¹³C values for Vinchos skin is −11.8 ± 1.2‰ and the mean of δ¹⁵N values is 13.2 ± 0.5‰. The samples of muscle tissue have a δ¹³C mean of −11.9 ± 0.9‰ and a δ¹⁵N mean of 12.7 ± 0.3‰. The data from bone collagen indicate maize was the basis of the region's subsistence economy. A significant correlation between δ¹³C and δ¹⁵N values of bone collagen (R² = 0.75) is consistent with the preferential fertilization of maize with composted manure. Both skin and muscle samples are consistently enriched in δ¹⁵N relative to paired samples of bone (2.1 ± 0.5 and 1.6 ± 0.7‰, respectively), possibly as a result of short term physiological stress or differential decomposition.     

New and past geochemical data on fresh to brine waters of the Salar de Atacama and Andean Altiplano,northern Chile

The paper deals with the major chemistry and stable isotopes (hydrogen, oxygen, carbon, sulfur, strontium) of waters and solutes from the Salar de Atacama basin (Rio Pedro, Honar Creek and Laguna Chaxa) and Andean Altiplano (Laguna Miñique and Laguna Miscanti). The water inflows of the Salar are chemically quite different, the Rio San Pedro being of Na‐Cl type and the Honar Creek of Na‐HCO₃ type, in keeping with the sedimentary‐evaporitic and volcanic nature of the catchment rocks respectively. The δ³⁴S and δ¹⁸O values of sulfate and the ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr ratio of strontium in the streams match those of drained rocks, whereas the δ¹³C values of dissolved carbonate are largely controlled by vegetation. The lagoons are evaporated meteoric water bodies, and the relative air humidity estimated from the slope of the isotopic evaporation line is in accordance with historical data on air humidity in the area. The Laguna Chaxa is Na‐Cl rich, and its isotopic composition are consistent with a mixed sedimentary‐volcanic provenance of sulfur and strontium solutes. The Laguna Miñique is Na‐SO₄ rich, and its sulfate δ³⁴S is nearly identical to that of Laguna Chaxa. The δ¹³C(HCO₃) values are quite different in the Laguna Chaxa and Laguna Miñique, with the former being notably enriched in ¹³C probably because of preferential uptake of ¹²C by the high biological productivity occurring in the lagoon. The limited set of new data is interpreted in the context of a much larger literature database. In particular, previous chemical data on inflows and brines in the Salar de Atacama were revisited, and compared with evaporation path models and mineral stability diagrams (boron, lithium and Mg‐minerals) computed using updated software and thermodynamic databases. The modeling shows that the removal of boron and lithium from sulfate‐rich brines possibly occurs, respectively, as ulexite and sulfate salts, and carnallite should be the final magnesium phase of the brine evolution.     

Dietary changes and millet consumption in northern France at the end of Prehistory: Evidence from archaeobotanical and stable isotope data

Diachronic changes of dietary human habits between the Neolithic and the Bronze Age are mainly identified through archaeological artefacts and archaeozoological and archaeobotanical studies. This paper aims to demonstrate the importance of a multi-disciplinary approach for palaeodietary studies and to identify the food changes between Neolithic and Bronze Age human groups in northern France. These changes are probably linked to the introduction of new crops, such as millet, and the use of stable isotope analysis on bones and teeth proves to be an effective method for assessing the role of this specific cereal in the diet and the economy. Stable isotope analyses were performed on bone and tooth collagen and apatite from eight humans and five domestic animals from a Late Bronze Age site (LBA; Barbuise; 15th–13th c. BC; Aube). The studied corpus is compared with isotopic data from human and animal bones from a nearby Neolithic site (Gurgy; 5th mill. BC; Yonne) and regional Neolithic to Iron sites located in northern France. Moreover, Barbuise data are supplemented by information from an important archaeobotanical study carried out on 21 LBA and Early Iron Age sites in the region. Neolithic and LBA human collagen isotopic ratios (δ¹³C, δ¹⁵N) differ statistically, as do those of some animals. Carbon isotopic ratios of human apatite corroborate collagen results indicating the consumption of ¹³C enriched food by LBA humans and animals compared to Neolithic samples. The high number of occurrences of plant remains in the Bronze Age settlements near the site points to the consumption of C₄ plants, such as millet, and would account for these results.     

Evidence of open-air late prehistoric occupation in the Trieste area (north-eastern Italy): dating, 3D clay plaster characterization and obsidian provenancing

Abundant clay burnt plaster remains and a few flaked tools, including an obsidian artefact, found on the ground surface not far from Trieste (north-eastern Italy) provide rare evidence of a possible prehistoric open-air occupation in the area. To confirm and detail their ancient origin, a plaster sample has been dated between 4000 and 2000 B.C. via thermoluminescence. Outer and inner structure of selected plaster samples has been characterized using several techniques, i.e. X-ray diffraction, scanning electron microscopy and X-ray computed micro-tomography, obtaining information about their production technology. The last technique has allowed to image and virtually extract vegetal remains and imprints. Their 3D morphological study has contributed to collect information about the ancient environment and has provided clues to define the plaster production season. The provenance of the obsidian artefact from Lipari Island, revealed by prompt gamma activation analysis, suggests that the finding site was part of long-distance connection systems and probably worked as intermediate point between the north-eastern Adriatic coastal areas and the inner Karst plateau.     

Petrographic analysis and INAA geochemistry of prehistoric ceramics from Robinson Pueblo, New Mexico

The examination of thin sections is a successful method for discovering provenance groupings of archaeological ceramics if non-clay inclusions in pottery paste can be identified with petrographically distinctive geologic sources. When this is not the case, geochemical analysis must be employed to search for more subtle evidence of such groupings. This situation is likely to arise in studies, such as the present one, where the objective is to discern local or subregional patterns of pottery manufacture and exchange. Ninety potsherds from site LA46326 in New Mexico were subjected to both INAA and petrographic analysis. The results of this conjoint approach are assessed in relation to geochemical theory and are analysed graphically and statistically.     

Stable isotope analysis of prehistoric populations from the cemeteries of the Middle and Lower Dnieper Basin,Ukraine

This paper presents the results of new stable isotopes (carbon and nitrogen) analysis of human, faunal and fish remains from thirteen cemeteries from the Middle and Lower Dnieper Basin, Ukraine. The results are integrated with earlier analyses, undertaken solely on human samples, in order to provide a comprehensive overview of subsistence across the Upper Palaeolithic through to Eneolithic periods in this region. This is the first time that a combined sample of human, faunal and fish remains has been studied in order to interpret subsistence strategies across these periods in Ukraine. The total dataset comprises 113 samples of human, faunal and fish remains, 59 of which include new analyses of faunal and fish remains that have not previously been made available for study (Table 1). The analysis of the faunal and fish remains allows for a consideration of trophic levels which indicates that the consumption of freshwater fish occurs from the Epipalaeolithic period onwards. Whilst the majority of the cemeteries and the individuals therein cluster in relatively tight groups, there is a significant offset between the human and faunal samples due to the consumption of freshwater resources. The fish samples analysed in the study appear to exhibit a relatively random distribution when compared to the other samples analysed. In general, freshwater resources remain significant through until the end of the Neolithic period and into the Eneolithic period at the sites investigated.