A MULTIDISCIPLINARY APPROACH TO THE CHARACTERIZATION OF ROMAN GRAVESTONES FROM AQUILEIA (UDINE,ITALY)*

The results of an archaeometric study on gravestone production in Aquileia (northeastern Italy) during Roman Republican times are reported here. The artefacts are made of limestone, quarried from the sedimentary sequence of the Trieste Karst (Carnican Alps, northeastern Italy), as testified by historical sources which refer to the ‘Roman Quarry’ at Aurisina. The rock types used for the gravestones are petrographically, geochemically and geochronologically homogeneous, and display similar faunal assemblages. In addition, their age is restricted to the Santonian – Lower Campanian. Comparisons between archaeological finds and rock specimens from various active and inactive quarries in this area suggest that quarrying during Roman Republican times was limited to a specific stratigraphic horizon of the sedimentary sequence, corresponding to the higher part of the ‘Roman Quarry’.     

Multi-resolution morpho-bathymetric survey results at the Pozzuoli–Baia underwater archaeological site (Naples,Italy)

Here we show the results of two morpho-bathymetric surveys carried out on the underwater archaeological area of the Pozzuoli Bay (Naples, Italy). Such area is enclosed in the Campi Flegrei active volcanic complex, where bradyseism and recent volcanic activity strongly influenced the coastline shape over the last 2 Ka. The Digital Elevation Model (DTM) of the seafloor allowed to draw the main archaeological features of the Bay, that also include the military complex of Portus Iulius and the ancient thermal and villa complex of Baianus Lacus. The extraction of archaeological features from DTM was achieved thanks to the use of a GIS-derived tool based on the profile curvature algorithm. Thus, the Villa dei Pisoni (1st Century B.C.) and the thermal complex of Secca delle Fumose were investigated by using ultra-high resolution DTMs, that show the presence of Roman pilae for the protection of coastal buildings and also the inner planimetry of the Villa dei Pisoni complex. The observation of coastal engineering structures give also the opportunity to formulate some hypothesis on the evolution of morphology and of the sedimentary pattern of the area, while depth of archaeological remains allowed a rough computation of the rate of subsidence, resulted to be 2.55 (±0.5) mm/y for the Eastern sector (Pozzuoli) and 2.90 (±0.5) mm/y for the western (Baia).     

Magnetic imaging and electrical resistivity tomography studies in a Roman military installation found in Satala archaeological site,northeastern Anatolia,Turkey

Satala is one of the last great military centers in the Roman East available for archaeological and historical investigations. This archaeological site is situated on the crossing of two singularly important routes in North-East Asia Minor. Only little archaeological fieldwork in and around Satala has so far been carried out, thus delimiting our knowledge of the site and its role within the Roman military structure of the East. In order to provide further data on the site, we carried out geophysical surveys including the application of magnetic and electrical resistivity techniques in an area north of the Sadak village. The geophysical surveys within this area (supposedly part of the Roman military camp) proceeded in two stages. The first stage saw magnetic gradiometer imaging studies being carried out on 2.1 ha, measured by a Geoscan FM-36 fluxgate gradiometer by using 0.5 × 1 m grid intervals. For the second stage a different geophysical technique was used—resistivity tomography. Resistivity data were collected using a number of combined 2D resistivity pseudosections in the eastern part of the area which contained very regular magnetic anomalies. The 3D data were obtained by the combination of all survey lines collected from 2D data sets, and thereafter the arranged data were processed by using the 3D robust inversion modified from the smoothness-constrained algorithm. Electrical resistivity tomography investigations revealed that the buried archaeological structures might be located near the surface, except for some structures found in the middle of the studied area. The archaeological structures were furthermore determined by realistic model sections and volumetric representations. Magnetic imaging and electrical resistivity tomography surveys show that the combined usage of these techniques advances the understanding of archaeological structures beneath the surface.     

A Palaeoenvironmental Investigation of Sediments from the Prehistoric Mine of Copa Hill,Cwmystwyth, mid-Wales

This paper investigates the use of mine sediments to reconstruct the vegetational changes and atmospheric pollution history associated with prehistoric and Mediaeval metal mining in the Ystwyth valley, Dyfed, mid-Wales. Pollen, charcoal, plant macrofossils, fossil insects and chemical analyses are presented from radiocarbon-dated sediments contained within a prehistoric mine situated on the upper slope of Copa Hill, close to the village of Cwmystwyth. The results provide additional support to the hypothesis that prehistoric mining had a negligible impact on woodland and that deforestation took place after Bronze Age mining ceased. Although high concentrations of Cu, Pb and Zn were determined from sediments of prehistoric and Roman Age, the patterns bear little resemblance to off site atmospheric pollution records and to the archaeological evidence for metal mining. Interpreting geochemical data from mine contexts is problematic as numerous factors influence the distribution and concentration of metals. However, an on-site and off-site approach to investigate human-environment interactions caused by metal mining is advocated.     

Early medieval origins of iron mining and settlement in central Sweden: multiproxy analysis of sediment and peat records from the Norberg mining district

The historical Norberg mining district in central Sweden with its shallow, easily accessible iron ores figures prominently in the earliest documents from the 14th century concerning mining or metallurgy. This 1000-km² district is considered to be one of the first areas in Sweden exploited for iron ores and, in fact, Europe’s oldest known blast furnace, Lapphyttan, is located in the Norberg district about 10 km from the mines in the village of Norberg (Norbergsby). Earlier archaeological excavations suggest the furnace was in operation as early as the 11th or 12th century (870 and 930 ¹⁴C yr BP), and a number of other sites in the district have been dated to the 13th–15th centuries. Here, we have analyzed two lake sediment records (Kalven and Noren) from the village of Norberg and a peat record from Lapphyttan. The Lapphyttan peat record was radiocarbon dated, whereas the sediment from Kalven is annually laminated, which provides a fairly precise chronology. Our pollen data indicate that land use in the area began gradually as forest grazing by at least c. AD 1050, with indications of more widespread forest disturbance and cultivation from c. 1180 at Lapphyttan and 1250 at Kalven. Based on ²⁰⁶Pb/²⁰⁷Pb isotope ratios in Kalven’s varved sediment record, there is an indication of mining or metallurgy in the area c. 960, but likely not in immediate connection to our sites. Evidence of mining and metallurgy increases gradually from c. 1180 when there is a decline in ²⁰⁶Pb/²⁰⁷Pb ratios and an increase in charcoal particles at Lapphyttan, followed by increasing inputs of lithogenic elements in Noren’s sediment record indicating soil disturbance, which we attribute to the onset of mining the iron ore bodies surrounding Noren. From AD 1295 onwards evidence of mining and metallurgy are ubiquitous, and activities accelerate especially during the late 15th century; the maximum influence of Bergslagen ore lead (i.e., the minimum in ²⁰⁶Pb/²⁰⁷Pb isotope ratios) in both Kalven and Noren occurs c. 1490–1500, when also varve properties change in Kalven and in Noren sharp increases occur in the concentrations of a range of other ore-related metals (e.g., arsenic, cadmium, copper, iron, lead, mercury and zinc). From the 15th century onwards mining and metallurgy are the dominant feature of the sediment records.     

Settlement and environmental history of a multilayered settlement mound in Niederröblingen (central Germany) – a multi-proxy approach

A multi-disciplinary palaeoecological approach on a sequence of dated archaeosediments was accomplished. The sediments derive from a multilayered prehistoric settlement mound in central Germany, representing the remnants of a prehistoric village. Based on the analysis of biological remains and geochemical/physical analysis of the settlement layers its environment was reconstructed. There is a trend to increasing anthropogenic activities and impact on the environment represented through a rise of indicators for productive surplus from the Early Neolithic (5300–4900 BC) until the Roman Times (400 AD). During the Early Neolithic, shifting flat settlements were situated in a locally opened landscape. The immediate surrounding of the floodplain was used by the settlers for their economic requirements (e.g. wood from the riparian forest). After a hiatus of ca. 1900 years, a multilayered settlement mount rose from Late Neolithic Times (3000 BC) to Roman Times. Since the Middle Bronze Age (approximately 1500 BC) the riparian forest was obviously replaced by agricultural fields and meadows and henceforward the hinterland used by the settlers probably grew in size. The continuing demand of wood was maintained by the acquisition of more distant sources. The onset of house constructions substituting wood by loam (wattle and daub) might be a possible societal response to this shortfall. This is reflected in the growing thickness and composition of the settlement layers, as well as in the archaeological record (e.g. tumbled wattle and daub house walls). The rising of the groundwater table and the start of severe floods of the adjacent river Helme during pre-Roman Iron Age (approx. 800–100 BC) might reflect a geomorphological response to the increased land use intensity at a regional scale.     

A multi-layered prehistoric settlement structure (tell?) at Niederröblingen,Germany and its implications

At least 15 settlement layers, deposited above each other from the early Neolithic (ca. 5300 cal BC) until Roman Imperial Times (ca. 400 cal AD), have been discovered at Niederröblingen, Germany. Constituting the longest duration of prehistoric settlement in central Europe so far known (ca. 4000 yrs), the site is thought to represent the first multi-layered settlement mound (tell?) north of the Alps. This implicates that the occurrence of settlement mound is not limited to the circum-Mediterranean area. The detailed chronology, based on archaeological, radiocarbon and OSL dating and supporting a Bayesian model, shows one clear occupational gap (early Neolithic) and a possible hiatus (Roman Times). Erosion phases of the settlement mound and the deposition of alluvial sediments (since Roman Imperial Times) in the surroundings resulted in an almost complete disappearance of the mound from the recent scenery. Being difficult to detect, similar sites might be present, undetected, in central Europe. Their discovery and study would enable the precise reconstruction of the settlement history as well as of the prehistoric man–environmental interactions at a high resolution.     

Soil geochemistry and detection of early Roman precious metal and copper alloy working at the Roman town of Calleva Atrebatum (Silchester,Hampshire, UK)

A geochemical soil survey was carried out over 500 m² of a first and second century AD house complex in insula IX of the Roman town of Calleva Atrebatum (Silchester, Hampshire, UK) where there was little prima facie evidence for non-ferrous metalworking. Preliminary analyses were made by XRF of lead, zinc and copper. These were followed by analysis for Au, Ag and Sn by ICP-MS of the samples with the highest concentrations of Pb, Zn and Cu. Certain of the Pb, Zn and Cu concentrations suggest the working of copper alloy including brass, and could be associated with archaeological evidence of hearths and burnt areas of second century AD date. Other samples have concentrations of the above metals and of gold and silver which do not appear to be associated with any physical remains of hearths and burnt areas. These concentrations date to the mid-first century AD.     

FTIR and statistical studies on amber artefacts from three Romanian archaeological sites

In the present study Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy in the reflectance mode (FTIR-reflectance) – was performed on well preserved archaeological amber, originating from three Romanian archaeological sites of Roman and Byzantine cultures, which did not allow sampling material. Resulting spectra were subjected to multivariate data analysis (MDA) using Principal Components Analysis (PCA). In the light of the FTIR-reflectance bands of archaeological samples from the region 1275 to 1155 cm⁻¹ and 900–600 cm⁻¹ we could conclude that the samples from first two locations, Ro?ia Montan? and Nuf?ru, are made from amber of Baltic origin. In the case of the third location, Isaccea, we take into account the possibility of a mixture of raw materials, both Baltic and Romanian amber. These assertions are supported by statistical analysis and the historical context. Besides the FTIR spectra comparison or other analytical data, it is very important to correlate any information about the material (colour, conservation status, historical context, connections with other artefacts) and the statistical analysis in order to favour safe conclusions.     

Identifying domestic functional areas. Chemical analysis of floor sediments at the Classical-Hellenistic settlement at Düzen Tepe (SW Turkey)

For over a decade, multi-element chemical analysis of floor sediments in archaeological contexts has been a tool to identify and interpret anthropogenic chemical residues and activities. For the current study, a multi-element chemical analysis was applied to floor samples from a Classical-Hellenistic courtyard building at Düzen Tepe (SW Turkey). Among a series of 19 elements analyzed, K, Mg, Fe, P and Sr are thought to directly reflect anthropogenic chemical residues. The elements Cr, Mg, Ni, Pb and Ti are considered to reflect the geological background of the site, yet their contents seem to vary over different chemical residue zones, making them a suitable tool for delineating activity areas. Overall, the sampling and analysis techniques applied at Düzen Tepe – mild acid sample extraction and ICP-OES analysis – have proven to be fit for this kind of study. The analyses allow human activity zones within the study area to be identified and interpreted and deliver insights into the archaeological contexts that could not be obtained by archaeological research alone.     

How Mineralogy and Geochemistry Can Improve the Significance of Pb Isotopes in Metal Provenance Studies

Lead isotopes combined with trace element data represent a powerful tool for non‐ferrous metal provenance studies. Nevertheless, unconsidered geological factors and archaeological data, as well as ignored analytical procedures, may substantially modify the interpretation of the isotopic and trace element signature obtained as a potential ore candidate. Three archaeological examples, accompanied by high‐resolution lead isotopic measurements (MC–ICP–MS), are presented here to discuss the above‐mentioned criticisms and to propose some solutions. The first example deals with prehistoric/historical gold/silver‐mining activity from Romania (the Baia Bor?a and Ro?ia Montan? ore deposits). The second one regards the lead/silver metallurgical activity from the Mont‐Lozère massif (France) during medieval times. The third example focuses on the comparison between two batches of lead isotope data gathered on Roman lead ingots from Saintes‐Maries‐de‐la‐Mer, using different SRM 981 Pb values.     

Five thousand years of atmospheric Ni,Zn, As,and Cd deposition recorded in bogs from NW Iberia: prehistoric and historic anthropogenic contributions

The analysis of environmental archives from across the world has demonstrated that human perturbation of the geochemical cycles of trace metals and the resultant atmospheric metal contamination date back, at least, several millennia. However, an understanding of the local processes and timing of changes in trace metal deposition is also essential for a proper global interpretation. The Iberian Peninsula was a major mining area since prehistoric times and the analysis of environmental archives provides a good opportunity to improve our understanding of the history of mining and metallurgy in Europe. We present the results from three ¹⁴C dated peat cores from the Xistral Mountains (NW Iberia). These records are used to reconstruct past atmospheric deposition of Ni, Zn, As, and Cd. The chronology of the changes in concentrations and metal accumulation rates was found to be concordant in the three bogs, and showed great similarity to total Pb, Hg, and Pb isotope ratios as determined in previous investigations. They present a consistent view of changes in atmospheric pollution and the importance of metals in the development of human societies, especially: i) the first evidence of atmospheric metal pollution 3400 years ago, which is simultaneous with the expansion of the Atlantic Bronze Koine; ii) a pollution event between 2350 and 2150 years ago, associated to the development of so-called Celtic culture (local Late Iron Age); iii) a dramatic increase of metal fluxes in Roman times; iv) a severe and rapid increase in the last 250 years corresponding to the beginning of the industrial revolution in Europe, reflecting the emergence of the new dominant sources of pollution, and v) the increase of long range atmospheric transport of pollutants. Our data suggest that all detected ancient (until ca. 1450 cal BP) periods of enhanced Ni, Zn, As, and Cd accumulation may have had an anthropogenic origin, related to the onset and development of mining and metallurgy.     

A Speleothem Record of Early British and Roman Mining at Charterhouse,Mendip, England

The laser ablation ICP–MS transect of a speleothem from GB Cave, close to Charterhouse, Mendip Hills, UK, records Pb variations over the past 5 ka. The speleothem record correlates well with the known historical record of lead mining in the district, the principal features of which include: the Roman lead mining peak; the Dark Ages cessation; gradual, episodic revival up to the late 16th century peak; the 17th century collapse and subsequent recovery; and the final short‐lived burst at the end of the 19th century. This correlation supports the assumption that the pre‐Roman lead record also derives from local mining. Thus, this record is the first example of quantifying ancient human mining activity through trace element signature of a speleothem. This record also provides the first solid evidence of significant pre‐Roman mining activity in the Charterhouse region, and the first solid dating of that activity. This pre‐Roman mining can be divided into three main peaks dated to 1800–1500 bc , 1100–800 bc and 350–0 bc .     

Cereal grinding technology in ancient Mesopotamia: evidence from dental microwear

Dental microwear features in a sample of 10 human teeth from Tell Ashara and Tell Masaikh, two archaeological sites in the Middle Euphrates valley, Syria, were compared for possible evidence of a shift in grinding technology in Mesopotamia—parallel to the well-documented introduction of large rotary querns and watermills in the Graeco-Roman world. Two chronological subsets (Bronze Age, n = 4 and Late Roman/Islamic period, n = 6) differred substantially and features related to a more abrasive diet (broad lines, pits and punctures visible on SE micrographs) were significantly less frequent in the later subsample which may indicate that the shift in cereal grinding technology occured in Mesopotamia before the Late Roman period.     

Archaeobotany,vine growing and wine producing in Roman Southern France: the site of Gasquinoy (Béziers,Hérault)

Unequivocal evidence of Roman vine cultivation and wine making is provided from studies of combined archaeological remains from the site of Gasquinoy (Southern France). Waterlogged and charred plant material (fruits/seeds/wood) collected from wells located in the close vicinity of cultivated fields and wine making establishments confirms the local significance of this activity. The results offer insights on particular aspects of wine production (‘traumatic’ treading of grapes and straining) and provide evidence of secondary agricultural activities such as cereal production and fruit tree cultivation. The potential use of monocotyledonous stems such as Arundo/Phragmites in the farming system is discussed.     

The Roman Lighthouse at Akko,Israel

During Roman rule Akko, in Israel, was a major Levantine seaport. Historical, numismatic and archaeological evidence shows that often Roman maritime‐associated activities, in the Levant and elsewhere, included the building or maintenance of lighthouses. No clear indications of a Roman lighthouse in Akko are known. Re‐examination of navigational considerations, coastal archaeological surveys, underwater investigations and numismatic evidence supports the proposition that a Roman lighthouse existed there. It is suggested that the lighthouse was situated on an islet near the harbour entrance. © 2011 The Authors     

SOLDIER, CIVILIAN AND MILITARY BRICK PRODUCTION

Summary.   Occasional claims have been made that some of the names on Roman military brick stamps could be those of civilian entrepreneurs tiling for the Roman army, most recently in the case of a stamp of Legio XX Valeria Victrix from Tarbock (Liverpool). This paper analyses these claims and investigates the evidence for interaction between the Roman army and civilians in brick production. The texts of the stamps and the archaeological context of the bricks and literary sources, which give information about the role of the army and civilian bodies in Roman provincial building, are taken into consideration.     

Holocene paleoshorelines,water levels and submerged prehistoric site potential of Rice Lake (Ontario,Canada)

Rice Lake, located in the eastern Great Lakes of North America, has a high density of prehistoric (11–0.5 ka BP) terrestrial archaeological sites. It has been speculated that a large number of sites are submerged on the lakebed, as lake levels have risen >9 m since the arrival of Early Paleoindian peoples (∼11 ka BP). In order to better understand the submerged landscape and its archaeological potential, a detailed bathymetric survey and sediment-coring program was conducted across a 30-km² area of northeastern Rice Lake. Changes in Holocene water levels and shoreline positions were reconstructed by integrating core data with a digital elevation and bathymetric model (DEBM) that accounted for differential isostatic uplift and basin sedimentation. The DEBM was used to generate a series of maps showing changes in the lake paleobathmetry and paleogeography and areas of prehistoric archaeological potential.     

Roman lead mining in Germany: its origin and development through time deduced from lead isotope provenance studies

High precision lead isotope analysis by Multi Collector Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry was applied to the investigation of more than 240 Roman lead objects from several archaeological sites in Germany, in order to obtain information on the pattern of Roman mining activity and ore processing in the area. Measurements of ore samples from German deposits east (Siegerland, Lahn-Dill, Ems) and west of the Rhine (Eifel, Hunsrueck) were made and supplemented with data from literature to create a data bank of lead isotope ratios of European lead occurrences. Comparing the isotope ratios of lead objects with those from German ore deposits shows that the source of over 85% of the objects is Eifel ore deposits, but that, in the early years, the Romans also imported lead from the Southern Massif Central and later from Britain.     

Geoarchaeology of Ancient Aulis (Boeotia,Central Greece): human occupation and Holocene landscape changes

This article presents the results of a coring operation which brought to light new evidence for the evolution of the coastal plain of Aulis (Boeotia, Central Greece) in the Holocene. Thanks to Homer, Aulis is best known as the gathering point of the Achaean fleet before it sailed to Troy and a sanctuary of the goddess Artemis. Ancient sources and archaeological evidence suggest the presence of an ancient marine bay, potentially used as a harbor. In the course of investigation, we drilled two cores, to a maximum depth of 4.20 m in the marshy lowlands and performed mollusc and micro-paleontological identifications, laser grain size analyses, and magnetic susceptibility measurements in order to reveal the facies evolution of the area. We obtained a chronostratigraphy sequence through a series of seven AMS ¹⁴C radiocarbon dates. Our study shows that the area was affected by a shallow marine incursion from the first half of the 6th millennium BC and gradually turned into a succession of shallow marine/lagoon environments from ca. 5000 cal. BC to the 2nd Century AD, and into a confined lagoon environment during the Roman and Byzantine periods.