Identifying regional variability in Middle Stone Age bone technology: The case of Sibudu Cave

A few pieces of worked bone were previously reported from Sibudu, a site from KwaZulu-Natal in South Africa featuring a stratigraphic sequence with pre-Still Bay, Still Bay, Howiesons Poort, post-Howiesons Poort, late and final MSA cultural horizons. Here we describe an expanded collection of worked bones, including twenty-three pieces. Technological and use-wear analysis of these objects, and their comparison with experimental and ethnographic data, reveals that a number of specialised bone tool types (wedges, pièces esquillées, pressure flakers, smoothers, sequentially notched pieces), previously known only from the Upper Palaeolithic and more recent periods, were manufactured and used at least 30,000 years earlier at Sibudu Cave. These tools appear to be part of a local tradition because they are absent at contemporaneous or more recent southern African sites. Variability in Middle Stone Age material culture supports a scenario in which, beyond broad similarities in lithic technology, significant differences between regions, and trends of continuity at a local scale emerge in other aspects of the technical system, and in the symbolic domain. The archaeological record is revealing a complexity that prevents evaluation of the modern character of Middle Stone Age cultures in antinomic terms. We argue here that it is the detailed analysis of cultural variation that will inform us of the non-linear processes at work during this period, and contribute in the long run to explaining how and when crucial cultural innovations became established in human history.     

Middle Stone Age bone tools from the Howiesons Poort layers,Sibudu Cave,South Africa

Recently discovered bone implements from Middle Stone Age (MSA) deposits at Sibudu Cave, South Africa, confirm the existence of a bone tool industry for the Howiesons Poort (HP) technocomplex. Previously, an isolated bone point from Klasies River provided inconclusive evidence. This paper describes three bone tools: two points and the end of a polished spatula-shaped piece, from unequivocal HP layers at Sibudu Cave (with ages greater than ∼61 ka). Comparative microscopic and morphometric analysis of the Sibudu specimens together with bone tools from southern African Middle and Later Stone Age (LSA) deposits, an Iron Age occupation, nineteenth century Bushman hunter-gatherer toolkits, and bone tools used experimentally in a variety of tasks, reveals that the Sibudu polished piece has use-wear reminiscent of that on bones experimentally used to work animal hides. A slender point is consistent with a pin or needle-like implement, while a larger point, reminiscent of the single specimen from Peers Cave, parallels large un-poisoned bone arrow points from LSA, Iron Age and historical Bushman sites. Additional support for the Sibudu point having served as an arrow tip comes from backed lithics in the HP compatible with this use, and the recovery of older, larger bone and lithic points from Blombos Cave, interpreted as spear heads. If the bone point from the HP layers at Sibudu Cave is substantiated by future discoveries, this will push back the origin of bow and bone arrow technology by at least 20,000 years, and corroborate arguments in favour of the hypothesis that crucial technological innovations took place during the MSA in Africa.     

The Taphonomy of the Final Middle Stone Age Fauna from Sibudu Cave,South Africa

This study applies a taphonomic analysis to the final Middle Stone Age faunal assemblage from Sibudu Cave, South Africa, by assessing bone surface modifications, breakage patterns and skeletal element abundances. Cut marks, percussion marks, severe fragmentation and the high frequency of burned bone combine to demonstrate that human behaviour was the principal agent in the assemblage's formation. These results are consistent with previous research on earlier occupations of Sibudu during the Middle Stone Age. Moreover, this assemblage is proposed to reflect regular site maintenance and cleaning. This conclusion is consistent with previous research that demonstrates systematic site maintenance during the Middle Stone Age at Sibudu and emphasises this behaviour as being a consistent activity for Middle Stone Age foragers. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

A Middle Stone Age occupation site at Porc Epic Cave,Dire Dawa (east-central Ethiopia)

This paper describes the results of the 1974 excavations at Porc Epic Cave, Dire Dawa. Following a summary of Dr M.A.J. Williams' interpretation of the stratigraphic succession and geological history of the cave and its contained deposits, the cultural sequence is described and an explanatory model presented. The 1974 excavation showed the Middle Stone Age layers to be sealed under a massive dripstone, except in the front part of the cave where erosion and later deposition had produced the seeming mixing of Middle and Later Stone Age artifacts observed by the 1933 excavators. Artifacts are associated with comminuted and often burnt bone round what appear to be hearths. Tools consist predominantly of points, scrapers and edge damaged blade and flake forms. The specialized nature of the retouched and utilized tools, together with the relative inaccessibility of the cave and the comminuted nature of the bone waste, suggest the possible use of the cave as a hunting camp at seasons when game migrated into the escarpment from the Afar Plains. The wide-ranging habits of the occupants are attested by the presence of obsidian and basalt artifacts, the raw material for which is not found in the immediate vicinity of the site. On the basis of the human jaw fragment discovered in 1933, the Middle Stone Age occupants of the cave are said to show both neanderthal and non-neanderthal features. Hydration dates for obsidian artifacts from the Middle Stone Age deposit indicate that the cave was occupied between about 61,000 and 77,500 bp. These results confirm that the Proc Epic occurrences are of comparable age to those from Middle Stone Age localities in other parts of the continent.

---

Résumé Cet article décrit les résultats des fouilles de 1974 à la grotte du Porc Epic, à Dire Dawa. Suivant un résumé de l'interprétation de la succession stratigraphique compilé par M. A. J. Williams et l'histoire géologique de la grotte et de ses dépôts, la séquence culturelle est décrite et un modèle explicatif est présenté. La fouille de 1974 a révélé que les couches du Middle Stone Age ont été scellées sous une épaisse couche de concrétion calcaire, sauf dans la partie avant de la caverne où l'érosion et une déposition ultérieure ont produit le mélange apparent des outillages du Middle et du Later Stone Age observé par les fouilleurs en 1933. Les industries sont associés à des fragments d'os souvent brûlés, autour de ce qui semble être des foyers. Les outils consistent surtout de pointes, de grattoirs et de formes de lames et d'éclats à bords endommagés. La nature spécialisée des outils retouchés et utilisés, ainsi que l'inaccessibilité relative de la grotte et l'aspect fragmenté des restes osseux, suggèrent l'usage possible de la grotte comme camp de chasse durant les saisons de migration du gibier vers l'escarpement des plaines des Afars. Les déplacements des occupants sur un vaste terrain sont attestés par la présence d'outils en obsidienne et en basalte, deux matériaux qui ne sont pas trouvés dans les environs immédiats du site. En se fondant sur un fragment de mâchoire humaine découvert en 1933, les occupants de la grotte au Middle Stone Age semblent démontrer des traits néanderthaliens et non-néanderthaliens. Les dates obtenues par la méthode d'hydratation des pièces en obsidienne provenant du dépôt du Middle Stone Age indiquent que la grotte fut occupée entre environ 61,000 et 77,500 bp. Ces résultats confirment que les activités dans la grotte du Porc Epic sont d'un âge comparable à celles des localités du Middle Stone Age trouvées ailleurs dans le continent.

     

Quartz-tipped arrows older than 60 ka: further use-trace evidence from Sibudu,KwaZulu-Natal,South Africa

This paper discusses the results of a detailed functional study of 16 microlithic backed tools made on quartz, and newly excavated at Sibudu Cave, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. The layers associated with the artefacts have OSL ages of 61.7 ± 1.5 ka, 63.8 ± 2.5 ka and 64.7 ± 1.9 ka and represent the Howiesons Poort Industry at the site. I show that more than 50% of the pieces could hardly have been used in any way other than to tip arrows in a transverse position. This outcome supports previous inferences that some of these small stone tools, and perhaps a bone point from the same context, signify the use of bow and arrow technology during the Middle Stone Age. In addition to transversely hafted arrow tips, there is also evidence that some of the tools could have been hafted diagonally. Such tools could have been used equally successfully as arrow tips or barbs, or as barbs for hand-delivered spears. The variation in hafting configuration for these geometric shapes signifies hunting technologies that were flexible and most likely adapted according to need, preference, season and/or prey type.     

A late Middle Stone Age artifact assemblage from Sibudu (KwaZulu-Natal): comparisons with the European Middle Paleolithic

It has been suggested that many behavioral innovations, said to appear during the late Middle Stone Age in sub-Saharan Africa, facilitated the expansion of anatomically modern humans from Africa and the Near East into Europe at about 50 kyr; the process eventually led to the replacement of Neanderthals by modern humans and the emergence of the Upper Paleolithic. However, assemblages in this time range are little known in South Africa. In fact, the transition from Middle to the Later Stone Age in Southern Africa is controversial. The early appearance in South Africa of many innovations, such as sophisticated knapping techniques (e.g. the use of soft hammer or indirect percussion in blade production, of composite tools, of microlithic and bladelet technologies) remains to be established through technological analysis.We present here the first results of a project designed to carry out detailed technological studies of several lithic assemblages in South Africa and France dated to the transition period. At this time we have completed the study of a post-Howiesons Poort assemblage from the rock shelter site of Sibudu.The >2 m deep stratigraphic sequence of Sibudu extends from Howiesons Poort at its base to final Middle Stone Age, directly under Iron Age layers. We have analyzed in detail layer RSP (ca. 53 kyr, 1 m above the Howiesons Poort levels) which has provided a large assemblage of several thousand stone artifacts. Compared to published MSA assemblages this industry is unusual for the very high proportions of retouched pieces (15%). The technology is not very elaborate and there is no strong standardization of the end-products. There are no flakes of predetermined shapes; retouch is used to modify irregular flakes to obtain desired edges. Knapping of flakes and blades is done by hard hammer; soft hammer is used only for retouching tools. Interestingly the older Howiesons Poort blades were produced on the same raw materials by soft hammer. Raw material (hornfels and dolerite) was procured from distances of less than 20 km. Unifacial points are the dominant type and there is strong evidence of hafting and use as spear armatures. Detailed comparisons with Middle Paleolithic assemblages of Western Europe show that the late Middle Stone Age technology in South Africa is very similar to that of the Middle Paleolithic; in fact we see no fundamental differences between the two entities, as far as lithic technology is concerned. Implications for the Out of Africa hypothesis are discussed.     

The Fauna from Ele Bor: Evidence for the Persistence of Foragers into the Later Holocene of Arid North Kenya

This paper reports on the results of zooarchaeological analysis of fauna from two stratified rockshelters at Ele Bor, 200 km east of Lake Turkana, Kenya. Ele Bor Site A, with radiocarbon determinations from 7000 to 1000 B P, yielded around 4000 identifiable bone specimens. The other site, Ele Bor M, yielded only a hundred bone specimens and will be discussed less extensively in this paper. Fauna from the EBA, although heavily modified by various taphonomic agents, testify to the strong continuity of a broad-based foraging pattern into the first millennium AD, the long stability of human use of a broad range of wild vertebrate species and to a stone-working tradition, augmented but not substantially modified by the introduction of ceramics and grinding equipment during the sixth to third millennium BC.Cette article présent des résultats de 1'analyses zooarquéologiques du faune de deux abris stratifiés à Ele Bor, situé 200 km à 1'est du Lac Turkana dans Kenya. Ele Bor Site A, avec datations du radiocarbon du 7000–1000 ans B.P., provient dans 1'environ de 4000 pièces identifiqués, et le de Ele Bor M, 100 pièces identifiques. Le faune de Ele Bor A, bien que modifiés par diverses processes taphonomiques, testifié à un continuité assez fort de subsistence bassé des especies vertébres indigènes, typiques d'environnements secs. Il n'ya pas d'évidences de adoptation de especies domestique, ni des plantes ni des animaux, jusqu'a 1'ultime millenaire avant présent.     

Evidence of the Emergence of “Modern” Behavior in the Middle and Later Stone Age Lithic Assemblages at Shurmai Rockshelter (GnJm1) and Kakwa Lelash Rockshelter (GnJm2) in the Mukogodo Hills of North-Central Kenya

The Shurmai (GnJm1) and Kakwa Lelash (GnJm2) rockshelters are located in the Mukogodo Hills region of north-central Kenya. Sondages excavated at both sites allow preliminary reconstruction of their geological and archaeological histories. A total of 4782 lithic pieces were recovered from Shurmai, and 7862 from Kakwa Lelash. The earliest materials from Shurmai date to the late African Middle Stone Age (sometime before ca. 40,000 years bp), and those from Kakwa Lelash apparently date to the African Later Stone Age (sometime after ca. 40,000 bp). The raw material composition, technomorphological characteristics, and style of assemblages from these sites do not reveal whether modern human behavior emerged first in the Middle or in the Later Stone Age. However, the greater sophistication, systematization and efficiency evident in the patterns of resource use, tool manufacture, and style in the Later Stone Age components at Shurmai and Kakwa Lelash rockshelters is consistent with the view that the origins of modern human behavior are to be found in the Later, rather than the Middle, Stone Age in Africa.Les abris de Shurmai (GnJm1) et Kakwa Lelash (GnJm2) sont situés dans la région de collines de Mukogodo du Kenya nord-central. Les sondages creusés aux deux sites permettent la reconstruction préliminaire de leurs histoires géologiques et archéologiques. Un total de 4782 objets lithiques étaient récupérés de Shurmai, et 7862 à Kakwa Lelash. Les matériaux les plus tôt de Shurmai datent au fin de l'Age de la Pierre Moyen d'Afrique (avant ca. 40,000 ans avant le présent), et ceux de Kakwa Lelash datent apparemment au l'Age de la Pierre Récent d'Afrique (après ca. 40,000 ans avant le présent). La composition de matière première, les caractéristiques techno-morphologiques et le modèle des assemblages de ces sites ne révéle pas si le comportement moderne humain a émergé d'abord dans l'Age de la Pierre Moyen ou Récent. Cependant, la plus grand sophistication, systématisation et efficacité évident dans les configurations de l'utilisation de la ressource et dans la fabrication et style des outils de l'Age de la Pierre Récent des abris de Shurmai et Kakwa Lelash se conforme avec l'opinion que les origines de comportement moderne humain se trouvent dans l'Age de la Pierre Récent plutôt que dans l'Age de la Pierre Moyen dans Afrique.     

Archaeology in Gabon, 1886–1988

This is the first attempt at synthesis of archaeological research conducted in Gabon between 1982 and 1988. Middle Stone Age, Late Stone Age, Neolithic, Early and Late Iron Age data are discussed in the context of earlier discoveries and of current research in Central Africa as a whole.Though the Middle Stone Age remains undated, its earliest component clearly preceded 40,000 bp. The Late Stone Age is datedca 9000–2500 bp, with an early Neolithic perhaps as old as 5000–3000 bp. A late Neolithic is firmly dated to 2600–2200 bp. Iron smelting is shown to have begunca 2500 bp in inland areas of Gabon andca 2000 bp near the coast.

---

Résumé On présente ici une première synthèse des données scientifiques obtenues au cours des travaux de 1982–1988 au Gabon. Les éléments relatifs au Middle Stone Age, au Late Stone Age, au Néolithique, aux Ages du Fer ancien et récent sont présentés. A chaque fois une discussion s'engage les mettant en relation avec le contexte global de l'Afrique Centrale ainsi qu'avec les découvertes antérieures.Quoique le MSA reste mal daté, il peut être démontré que les plus vieux outils ont au moins 40,000 ans d'âge. Le LSA quant à lui est circonscrit à la périodeca 9000–2500 bp, alors qu'un Néolithique ancien est peut-être situé vers 5000–3000 bp. Un Néolithique final est, lui, correctement daté vers 2600–2200 bp. Enfin, la fonte du fer est attestée à l'intérieur des terres dès 2500 bp alors que le littoral ne semble pas connaitre cette technologie avant 2000 bp.

     

Burned bone in the Howieson’s Poort and post-Howieson’s Poort Middle Stone Age deposits at Sibudu (South Africa): behavioral and taphonomic implications

Despite a growing awareness of the wide range of information that can be provided by detailed analyses of burned bone from archaeological contexts, such analyses are still relatively uncommon. This paper focuses on the behavioral and taphonomic implications of burned bone from the Middle Stone Age (MSA) site of Sibudu Cave (South Africa), reporting on the analysis of a large sample (>377,000 fragments) of bone recovered from the Howieson’s Poort (HP) and post-HP MSA deposits at the site. Faunal remains were initially sorted into burning categories based on changes in color; microscopic analyses focused on the optical properties of the bone matrix (degree of preservation of the bone structure, reflectance and fluorescence) indicated that the color is a valid indicator of thermally altered bone in the Sibudu assemblage. The association of burned bone with hearths, the intensity of burning damage, and the sheer quantity of thermally altered bone suggests that the bone was not burned primarily as a result of natural fires. We propose that the high incidence of burned bone primarily reflects two types of site maintenance activities: first, the discarding of bone into fire as a means of disposing of food waste (as also argued by Cain [2005, Using burned animal bone to look at Middle Stone Age occupation and behavior. J. Archaeol. Sci. 32, 873–884], for a smaller sample of material from the post-HP and late MSA deposits at the site), and second, the incidental burning of bone on/near the surface during the periodic burning of plant-based bedding. In considering the taphonomic implications of the burned bone, we demonstrate that calcined bone is in fact more heavily fragmented than unburnt or moderately burned bone. Furthermore, cortical preservation was negatively correlated with the intensity of burning damage, which has implications for the study of surface modifications. These results indicate the importance of conducting thorough taphonomic analyses prior to making comparisons between units that show differing degrees or intensities of burning damage.     

Iron age occupation in the Méma region,Mali

The recent archaeological campaign (regional site survey and excavations at the mound complex of Akumbu) has demonstrated that the Méma, a dry Sahelian region with a scattered population, was intensively occupied during the Iron Age. This intense occupation, certainly associated with better environmental conditions, extends back to the Late Stone Age. During the regional survey more than 100 Iron Age sites and nearly 30 Late Stone Age sites were identified; their size, surface material and features, and location on geomorphological zones were recorded. A series of radiocarbon dates spanning the fourth to fourteenth centuries ad obtained from the excavations at the Iron Age mound complex of Akumbu and a preliminary analysis of the pottery from both the excavations and the survey permitted the determination of a broad chronology of occupation. Numerous slag heaps (associated with smelting furnace remains) found during the survey and imported goods uncovered during the excavations at Akumbu indicate that both iron production and long-distance trade played an important role in the Méma economy.

---

Résumé Une campagne archéologique (reconnaissance et fouilles) exécutée en 1989–1990 a montré que le Méma, une région sahelienne de grande sécheresse à population actuellement éparse, était intensément peuplé pendant la période de l'Age du Fer. Cette intense occupation, certainement liée à de meilleures conditions climatiques, semble remonter à la période du néolithique. Au cours de la reconnaissance, conduite à l'échelle régionale, plus d'une centaine de sites datant de l'Age du Fer et environ une trentaine de sites néolithiques furent identifiés, enregistrés et décrits en termes de leurs dimensions, matériels et caractéristiques de surface, et environnement. Une série de datations au radiocarbone, obtenue lors de la fouille sur le complexe de buttes d'habitat de Akumbu, dans la partie ouest du Méma, indique une occupation s'étendant du quatrième siècle au quatorzième siècle de notre ère. La découverte d'imposants amas de scories, associés à des restes de hauts fourneaux, et objets exotiques trouvés lors des fouilles à Akumbu, attestent que la production de fer et le commerce à longue distance jouaient tous les deux un important rôle dans l'économie du Méma.

     

The evolution of human culture during the later Pleistocene: Using fauna to test models on the emergence and nature of “modern” human behavior

It has often been argued that the success and spread of modern humans ∼50,000 years ago was due to a series of key behavioral shifts that conferred particular adaptive advantages. And yet, particularly during the African Middle Stone Age (MSA), some of these “modern” behaviors see only patchy expression across time and space. Recent models have proposed a link between the emergence of modern behaviors and environmental degradation and/or demographic stress. Under these models, modern behaviors represent a form of social/economic intensification in response to stress; if this were the case, signs of subsistence intensification should be more common during periods in which these behaviors are manifested than when they are not. In order to test these models, I analyzed faunal remains from Sibudu Cave (South Africa), focusing on the Howieson’s Poort (HP), a phase in which modern behaviors are evidenced, and the post-HP MSA, when classical signatures of such behavior have disappeared. Significant variability in hunting behavior was identified. While much of this variability appears to correspond with changes in the local environment, evidence for resource stress was more common during the HP. The implications of these results to our understanding of the evolution of human culture are discussed.     

Technological change in the Earlier and Middle Stone Age of Kalambo Falls (Zambia)

This paper reviews data on technological change in the manufacture of stone tools from the Earlier Stone Age (ESA) to Middle Stone Age (MSA including Sangoan) deposits at Site A, Kalambo Falls, Zambia. Data on flake and tool morphology, dimensions, and raw material are discussed It is concluded that there is little change, at this site, in the basic techniques of blank production or the attributes of the blanks produced from the ESA to the MSA. The only marked change to occur is the loss of large cutting tools (hand axes, cleavers) and their replacement by heavy-duty forms (core axes, picks). It is hypothesized that this change marks a decline in portability as a factor in the design of large edge tools.

---

Résumé Cet article donne un compte rendu des donnés sur la change technologique dans la fabrication des outils lithiques en les dépôts du Earlier Stone Age (ESA) jusqu'a la Middle Stone Age (MSA, qui comprit la Sangoan) au gisement A, Kalambo Falls, Zambia. Des donnés sur la morphologie, les dimensions et les matériaux des éclats et des outils sont examinées. Il est inféré qu'il y a peu de changement, à ce gisement, dans le techniques élémentaires de la fabrication des supports ou dans les attributs des supports taillés du ESA jusqu'a MSA. Le seule change qui se présent ç'est la perte des gros outils pour couper (bifaces, hachereaux) et leur remplacement par des formes plus substantiels (core axes, pics). On fait l'hypothèse que ce changement indique une déclin de portabilité comme facteur dans le dessein des outils avec des grands tranchants.

     

Prehistoric exchange and interaction in southeastern southern africa: Marine shells and ostrich eggshell

The spatiotemporal distribution of seashells and ostrich eggshell in the Later Stone Age of southeastern southern Africa is used to infer several areas of social interaction. The inferred patterns are supported by comparisons with preferences for lithic raw materials and the distribution of bifacial stone arrows. Plusiers zones de l'interaction sociale sont déduites des distributions chronologiques et spatiales de la coquillage et de la coquille de'autruche de l'Age de la Pierre Récent au sud- est de l'Afrique australe. Ces distributions sont soutenues des préférences pour des matières premières lithiques et de la distribution des flèches bifaciales de la pierre. Provincial names and boundaries are as given on May 1, 1994     

The Holocene Archaeological Sequence of Shum Laka Rock Shelter (Grassfields, Western Cameroon)

Until recently the Grassfields (western Cameroon), cradle of the Bantu languages, were an unknown zone from the archaeological point of view. The excavations of Shum Laka rock shelter by de Maret and his team brought the most complete sequence in West Africa, spanning the Late Pleistocene and the Holocene. After 20 millennia of microlithic tradition (Late Stone Age), a new culture, with macrolithic tools, polishing and pottery (Stone to Metal Age), slowly developed ca. 7000 B.P. onwards. From this early period on, forest hunting was associated with the exploitation of Canarium schweinfurthii. Around 4000 B.P., an industry with waisted axes, blades, and pottery had emerged. With a striking technological continuity, this culture survived throughout the Iron Age. Increasing importance and diversity of trees exploited through the Stone to Metal Age and the Iron Age suggests arboriculture. Regional comparisons show that, between 5000 and 2500 B.P., an original culture developed in the Grassfields and the Cross River basin.Jusqu'à récemment, les Grassfields (Cameroun occidental), berceau des langues bantoues, étaient inconnus d'un point de vue archéologique. Les fouilles de l'abri de Shum Laka par de Maret et son équipe permirent d'établir la plus complète séquence d'Afrique occidentale, embrassant la fin du Pléistocène et l'Holocène. Après 20,000 millénaires de traditions microlithiques (Age de la Pierre Récent), une nouvelle culture, caractérisée par l'apparition d'outils macrolithiques, de polissage et de poterie (Age de la Pierre au Métal), se développe lentement à partir de 7000 B.P. Dès le début, la chasse en forêt est associée à l'exploitation de Canarium schweinfurthii. Vers 4000 B.P. une industrie avec haches à gorge, lames et poterie a émergé. Dans une continuité technologique surprenante, cette culture survivra à l'Age du Fer. L'arboriculture est suggérée par l'importance et la diversification des arbres exploités durant l'Age de la Pierre au Métal et l'Age du Fer. Des comparaisons régionales montrent que, entre 5000 et 2500 B.P., une culture originale se développe dans les Grassfields et le bassin de la Cross River.     

Middle and Later Stone Age lithic technology and land use in East African savannas

This paper examines changes in the use of sites and lithic raw materials during the later Middle Stone Age (MSA) and early Later Stone Age (LSA) in East Africa. It proposes two models of hunter-gatherer land use and technological organization in East African savannas and examines changes in the procurement and use of raw materials in MSA and LSA lithic assemblage sequences from Lukenya Hill, Kenya, and Nasera Rockshelter, Tanzania. Changes in procurement strategies across the transition are related to technological change, mechanical properties of raw materials, and changes in site use and in mobility.

---

Résumé Cet article examine les effets de l'existence locale de matières premières lithiques en Afrique orientale au cours du paléolithique moyenne et au début du paléolithique supérieure. Il propose deux modèles d'utilisation de la terre et d'organisation technologique par les populations des savannes d'Afrique orientale vivant de la chasse et de la cueillette, et examine les changements sur le plan de l'approvisionnement en matières premières et de leur utilisation dans les séries de collections lithiques du paléolithique moyenne et du paléolithique supérieure provenant de Lukenya Hill au Kénya et de Nasera Rockshelter en Tanzanie. Les modifications des stratégies d'approvisionnement au cours de la transition correspondent au changement de technologie, aux caractéristiques mécaniques des matières premières et aux changements dans l'utilisation des sites et la mobilité.

     

The Middle Stone Age in East Africa and modern human origins

East Africa, the region where Merrick Posnansky started his professional career, has long been accepted as the major centre for the study of the origins of hominids and their technological systems. Recently, human geneticists and some palaeoanthropologists have also proposed an African origin for anatomically modern humans (Homo sapiens sapiens), although much of the proof cited is from non-African sources — mainly Europe and the Middle East. Fortunately these models have stimulated reassessment of the sub-Saharan Middle Stone Age (MSA), the archaeological phase between 200,000 and 30,000 years ago which represents the beginnings of regional variation in technology and cultural adaptation as well as the period in which modern humans appeared. Long ignored by East African archaeologists in favour of the earliest cultural record, or, at the other extreme, Neolithic and Iron Age research, the MSA is critical to the evaluation of models of the emergence of our own species. This paper reviews the current arguments concerning the origin and dispersal of modern humans, and the importance of the MSA for the resolution of the problem. It also describes the results from a 1990 survey for MSA sites conducted in southwestern Tanzania within the framework of these current models.

---

Résumé L'Afrique orientale, où Merrick Posnansky commença sa carrière professionnelle, est depuis longtemps reconnue comme un centre important pour l'étude des origines des hominides et de leurs systèmes technologiques. Récemment, des généticiens et des paléoanthropologues ont aussi suggéré que les humains anatomiquement modernes (Homo sapiens sapiens) auraient des origines africaines, bien qu'un grand nombre des preuves citées proviennent de sources non-africaines, principalement d'Europe et du Moyen-Orient. Heureusement, ces modèles ont encouragé la réévaluation de l'âge de pierre moyen (MSA) sous-saharien, phase archéologique d'il y a 200.000 à 30.000 ans, qui représente les débuts des variations régionales sur le plan de la technologie et de l'adaptation culturelle. C'est aussi la période durant laquelle les étres humains modernes sont apparus. Longtemps ignoré par les archéologues d'Afrique orientale en faveur de témoignages cultures plus anciens ou, à l'autre extrême, des recherches de l'âge néolithique et de l'âge de fer, le MSA est crucial pour l'évaluation de modèles d'émergence de notre propre espèce. Cet article examine les arguments actuels concernant l'origine et la dispersion des humains modernes, et l'importance du MSA pour la résolution de ce problème. Il décrit également les résultats d'une recherche de sites MSA menée en 1990 dans le sud-ouest tanzanien, dans le cadre de ces modèles actuels.

     

Early hominid behaviour and culture tradition: raw material studies in Bed II,Olduvai Gorge

Two studies involving an analysis of artefact raw material use in Bed II at Olduvai Gorge (1.6–1.4 myr) are reported. The first study shows evidence for the manufacture of chert artefacts at a factory site and the subsequent transport of selected whole flakes to another site for use. Early hominids are thus shown to have been capable of planning a sequence of activities involving raw material extraction, processing, selection and transport for an ultimate use. The transported artefacts are found accumulated at sites associated with animal bones, suggesting that hominids were a principal agent in site formation. The second study demonstrates that the attributes of the artefacts said to differentiate the Developed Oldowan B from the Early Acheulean at Olduvai Gorge are the result of differential raw material use.

---

Résumé Deux études sur l'analyse de la matière première utilisée pour les outils du Bed II d'Olduvai Gorge (1.6–1.4 myr) sont présentées. La première étude prouve que les outils en chert étaient fabriqués dans un atelier de taille et que des éclats entiers étaient sélectionnés et transportés afin d'être utilisés sur un autre site. Ceci démontre que les anciens hominidés étaient capables de planifier une séquence d'activités comprenant l'extraction, le traitement, la sélection et le transport pour utilisation ultérieure, de la matière première. Les outils transportés sont retrouvés accumulés sur les sites, associés à des ossements d'animaux, ce qui suggère que les hominidés étaient les principaux responsables de la formation des sites. La deuxième étude démontre que les attributs des outils/objets sensés différencier l'Oldwayen développé B de l'Acheuléen ancien à Olduvai Gorge résultent d'une utilisation différente de la matière première.

     

Possible shell beads from the Middle Stone Age layers of Sibudu Cave,South Africa

Recent excavations at Sibudu Cave, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, uncovered an Iron Age horizon below which is a complex 3 m thick Middle Stone Age sequence with post-Howiesons Poort, Howiesons Poort, Still Bay and pre-Still Bay layers. Available OSL ages indicate that the Howiesons Poort occupation is older than 60 ky and the Still Bay older than 70 ky. Here we present the archaeological context and the taphonomic analysis of six Afrolittorina africana, three of which bear perforations, from the Still Bay and Howiesons Poort layers of this site. The single specimen from the latter cultural horizon comes from the lowermost layer attributed to this technocomplex. This and the depositional context of this layer suggest that this shell derives, as do the other five, from the Still Bay occupation layers. Taphonomic analysis of the archaeological specimens based on present day Afrolittorina africana biocoenoses, microscopic examination, morphometry, experimental perforation of modern shells, and a review of the natural agents that may accumulate marine shells at inland sites, indicate probable human involvement in the collection, transport, modification, and abandonment of Afrolittorina africana in Sibudu. If confirmed by future discoveries these shells would corroborate the use of personal ornaments, already attested at Blombos Cave, Western Cape Province, by Still Bay populations. The apparent absence of ornaments at Howiesons Poort sites raises the question of the mechanisms that have led to cultural modernity since it seems to contradict the scenario according to which cultural innovations recorded at Middle Stone Age sites reflect a process of continuous accretion and elaboration interpreted as the behavioural corollary of the emergence of anatomically modern humans.     

First molecular identification of a hafting adhesive in the Late Howiesons Poort at Diepkloof Rock Shelter (Western Cape,South Africa)

The hafting of tools using adhesive is one of the innovative features that characterizes the southern African Middle Stone Age. This technology has mainstream implications but remains insufficiently documented, largely due to unequal organic preservation and non-adapted analytical procedures. A notable exception is provided by the recent results from the site of Sibudu (Lombard, 2006; Wadley et al., 2009).