Prehistoric Butchery and Consumption of Birds in the Kingdom of Tonga,South Pacific

We evaluate the preservational attributes (element frequency, breakage, burning, cut-marks, rodent gnawing, and age) of ca. 500 bird bones from three prehistoric archaeological sites on the Polynesian islands of Foa and Lifuka in the Ha‘apai Group, Kingdom of Tonga. Two of the sites lie in calcareous beach sands whereas the third is the refuse infilling of a well. Although differing in age, all three sites are unequivocally cultural in origin, as evidenced by rich artifact assemblages and various sedimentological features (pits, hearths, etc.) that reflect human activities. The sites also contain bones from a diverse assemblage of marine fish, marine and terrestrial reptiles (sea turtles, iguanas), and terrestrial mammals (fruit bats, rats, pigs, dogs). We find no evidence for deposition of bones (bird or otherwise) in these Tongan sites by non-human agents. This is expected given that we are unaware of any non-human species or geological process that would concentrate the bones of fishes, reptiles, birds, and mammals on a beach ridge or in a well in Tonga. This is especially the case since the species range from very small to very large, and represent marine, fresh water, coastal, and forested habitats. Nevertheless, clear evidence of cultural involvement cannot be discerned on most individual bones, whether bird or non-bird. Furthermore, most taphonomic attributes (element frequency, breakage, burning, and cut-marks) of bones of a domesticated species (the chicken, Gallus gallus) resemble those found on bones of indigenous landbirds. We believe that all bones in any zooarchaeological assemblage should be evaluated carefully to determine who or what was responsible for their deposition. We see no reason, however, why bird bones should be held to some standard higher than those applied to the bones of other taxa, as some have suggested.     

Probable evidences of bone accumulation by Pleistocene bearded vulture at the archaeological site of El Mirón Cave (Spain)

The bearded vulture (Gypaetus barbatus), a bird or prey that mainly feeds on bones of large mammal carcasses, has been recently evidenced as an accumulating agent with significant contributions to palaeontological assemblages in caves and shelters, but extremely rare at archaeological sites. The results of the taphonomic analyses carried out in the Upper Palaeolithic layers of El Mirón Cave (Cantabrian Spain), which are presented here, evidence the existence of special digestive marks and a typical skeletal pattern in a noticeable amount of small and medium-sized ungulates bones. This fact suggest that a representative part of the bone assemblage has been caused by bearded vultures, and strengthens the idea that this bird has to be definitely included among other potential non-human accumulators in archaeological sites.     

Preservation of bird bones: erosion versus digestion by owls

Surface damage to bird bones from pellets of three species of owls (S. aluco, A. otus and B. bubo) was compared with that of bird bones exposed to weathering and soil corrosion (Záskogo Cave in the Western Balkan Mountains, Bulgaria and Ciemna Cave, southern Poland). Scanning electron microscopy and light microscope examinations indicate that the effects of weathering of bird bones (extensive pitting and flaking away on whole bones, holes with sharp edges, depressions with rough bottoms and sharp edges of breakage) are distinguishable from those of digestion (rounding of hole edges on articular ends and sometimes on shafts, rounding of breakage). However, soil corrosion may produce similar rounding to that of digestion, which may hamper taphonomic interpretations of fossil assemblages. Two stages of weathering in bird bone are distinguished. Generally, the kind of damage done to bird bones is similar to that done to mammalian remains. Taphonomic studies of fossil bird remains should take into account a combination of features, including surface damage, fragmentation and possible chemical alterations of bone tissues. © 1997 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Damage to Bird Bones in Pellets of GyrfalconFalco rusticolus

Fragmentation and digestion of bird bones in pellets of the gyrfalconFalco rusticoluswere studied. Remains of the axial skeleton, including the head, were very scarce. Whole bones were rarely preserved. Tibiotarsi and most other long bones were the best elements for the calculation of the minimum number of individuals. All types of bones were heavily modified by digestion: with a few exceptions, traces of digestion were observed on more than 80% of articular ends, nearly 100% of broken surfaces, and on some shafts.     

Black grouse as the prey of the golden eagle at an archaeological site

Remains of black grouse, Lyrurus tetrix, were recovered from an archaeological excavation of the site of a golden eagle, Aquila chrysaetos, eyrie. It has been suggested that bird remains from human predation can be distinguished from those due to avian predation, because humans leave few of the distal bones (tibiotarsus, carpometacarpus). In this case, the eagle also left few of these bones; it is suggested that the distinction is one which may allow owl prey to be distinguished, but human and raptor prey are indistinguishable by that criterion.     

Distinguishing nonhuman predation on birds: pattern of damage done by the white-tailed eagle Haliaetus albicilla, with comments on the punctures made by the golden eagle Aquila chrysaetos

The study presents criteria to distinguish some of the nonhuman predation on birds whose remains may also be found at archaeological sites. Specifically, it deals with fragmentation patterns of bird bones in uneaten food remains of the white-tailed eagle Haliaetus albicilla and discusses perforations in victims' bones done by the white-tailed and golden eagles. The food remains show very low degree of fragmentation; bones of the pectoral girdle and wing predominate while head and leg elements are poorly represented. The proportion of perforated sterna differs between the two species of eagles and it is suggested that the differences are attributed to the species of prey rather than the way of handling them by the raptors.     

The identification of extant european bird remains: a review of the literature

This paper reviews the literature on the identification of bird bones found in European sites. Such a review is useful both to Quaternary palaeontologists and to zooarchaeologists attempting to identify bird bones. The publications are considered systematically. We stress that the published works should not be used for identification in isolation, but that a comparative collection is essential. © 1997 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

A rallying point for different predators: the avian record from a Late Pleistocene sequence of Grotte des Barasses II (Balazuc,Ardèche,France)

The presence of processed birds in the archeological faunal record is considered key to assessing human dietary evolution. Taphonomic studies on birds from sites older than Marine Isotope Stage (MIS) 2 have become relevant in the last few years, leading to the proposal of more complex scenarios of human subsistence. Several works have demonstrated direct evidence of bird consumption by Homo prior to anatomically modern humans in Europe; however, others support the hypothesis of non-anthropogenic bird accumulations. This has led to the necessity of determining what elements or factors cause the human exploitation of birds in some archeological sites before the end of the Pleistocene. The Grotte des Barasses II site is located within this framework. Short-term human occupations have been attested by the presence of lithic tools and processed macrofaunal remains. Additionally, a small assemblage of bird bones has also been recovered. Here, we present a detailed taphonomic study with the aim of exploring possible relationships between these avian taxa and human occupations. Despite the fact that Neanderthals inhabited the cave, avian specimens show damage pointing to different causative agents. Direct evidence (digestion, gnawing) indicates that mammalian carnivores and nocturnal raptors were mainly involved in the accumulation of bird bones. We propose some factors that might determine whether or not small game was exploited in this specific locality and emphasize the importance of such analytical approaches in the general interpretations of the Pleistocene sites.     

Túnel: A Case Study of Avian Zooarchaeology and Taphonomy

Although not often considered, there are many osteological characters unique to the avian skeleton that influence the taphonomy of bird bones. These characters are reviewed and their archaeological significance discussed herein. The presence of marrow in many avian long bones is important to interpretation of avian remains from archaeological sites because the presence of marrow affects bone density and, in turn, preservation. Other structural properties that affect avian bone preservation include cortical wall thickness, length and pneumatic state. Based on an analysis of approximately 10,000 bird bones from the archaeological site of Túnel, Tierra del Fuego, Argentina, I found that specific breakage patterns resulted from natural taphonomic processes acting as a result of the unique avian bone characteristics. This information may allow researchers to distinguish breakage patterns in avian bones resulting from natural taphonomic processes from breakage patterns that are culturally induced.     

Avian Remains from Late Pre-colonial Amerindian sites on Islands of the Venezuelan Caribbean

ABSTRACT

This paper presents the results of the analyses of 3793 bird remains archaeologically recovered from seven late pre-Hispanic sites (～AD 1000–1500) on islands of the Venezuelan Caribbean. In order to address subsistence and manufacturing uses of bird bones, we first discuss the recovery process of this unique sample. We proceed to investigate the bones' archaeological contexts as well as the taphonomy in play and analyze diverse bone categories. We found that indigenous peoples consistently targeted several families of birds for food or feathers or both, and that avian bones were used for fashioning tools and adornments. We also discuss possible signatures of island campsite seasonal occupancy as inferred from the bio-ecology of the identified bird taxa. The data suggest that the differentiation of nesting grounds between the Red-footed and Brown Booby in the Southeastern Caribbean may be a result of anthropogenically-induced adaptation. The findings discussed in this paper open challenging avenues for assessing long-term changes in bird communities including the dynamics of resident and wintering bird populations.     

The domestic fowl and other birds from the Roman site of Mons Claudianus,Egypt

At the Roman quarry settlement of Mons Claudianus in the Eastern Desert of Egypt extreme aridity has preserved large amounts of organic matter. Amongst the faunal remains were several hundred bird bones, together with feathers and egg shell. The majority of the bird bones have been identified as domestic fowl Gallus gallus. Other species are rare: they include a few passage migrants and resident species. Finds of spurred tarsometatarsi and bones with medullary deposits indicate that both male and female domestic fowl are represented. It is likely that they were transported to the site from the Nile valley alive; some may have been kept at the settlement. Cut marks suggest that some at least were eaten, but the birds may have been used for different purposes, both secular and ritual. © 1997 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Stone Age exploitation of birds on the island of Gotland,Baltic Sea: a taphonomic study of the avifauna on the Neolithic site of Ajvide

We have conducted a detailed taphonomic study of the avifauna of the Pitted Ware culture site of Ajvide on the Island of Gotland in the Baltic Sea, in order to investigate the fowling patterns and the taphonomic history of the bird remains. We have investigated cultural as well as natural modifications on the bird bones, fragmentation and fracture patterns, and performed a systematic surface modification study. No specific area for the deposition of bird remains or specific bird species was identified. All major anatomical parts of birds are present in the assemblage, but there is a dominance of specimens from the wing elements. Traces of cultural modification were observed on the bones, including cut marks, burning, modification (implements, beads, raw material), and gnawing marks. The bone surface modifications and fracture analysis indicate that the majority of the bird bones at Ajvide did not lie on the soil surface for an extended period of time before being deposited in the soil. Dry fractures increase while fresh fractures decrease towards the upper levels of the stratigraphy, indicating more extensive post‐depositional destruction. This may partly be connected to modern agriculture, but also to later use of the settlement area as a burial ground. The Ajvide assemblage contains a variety of birds living in different biotopes. However, bird hunting was mainly focused on sea birds. Auks and ducks are the most common families in the assemblage. We find it likely that the Ajvide hunters conducted organised hunting expeditions to two nearby islands for the hunting of auks, while it was possible to hunt other birds such as ducks closer to the site. The presence of medullary bone and bones from subadult birds indicates a main hunting season in late spring and early summer. However, comparisons with modern migration patterns indicate that hunting may have occurred throughout the year. Of special palaeozoological interest is the find of gannet (Morus bassanus), which apparently in Neolithic times visited the Baltic area more regularly than today. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Fragmentation and preservation of bird bones in uneaten food remains of the Gyrfalcon Falco rusticolus

This paper presents fragmentation patterns of bird bones in uneaten food remains of the gyrfalcon Falco rusticolus. The victims' bones show a relatively low degree of fragmentation. Elements of the pectoral girdle and wing predominate while head and leg elements are poorly represented.     

Big fish and great auks: Exploitation of birds and fish on the Isle of Portland,Dorset, during the Romano-British period

Abstract

The paper considers the assemblage of bird and fish bones from a Romano-British settlement on the Isle of Portland, on the southern coast of England. Compared with contemporary sites, the assemblage includes an unusually large number of fish bones from a wide range of marine species, including large cod, other Gadidae, several species of seabream, scad and bass. The bird assemblage includes bones of a butchered great auk. This provides the first evidence that this extinct species was nesting off the shores of central southern England and being exploited for food in this period. Other seabirds identified included razorbill, great northern diver and gannet. The species represented are discussed in relation to other Romano-British sites, particularly the Roman town of Dorchester, situated 15 km away. Many of the species have been discovered on only a few contemporary sites and the presence of the seabream in particular indicates that seawater temperatures may have been warmer than until very recently. Possible cultural changes in diet and food procurement in the Roman period are also considered.     

Intra-skeletal variability in trace elemental content of Precolumbian Chupicuaro human bones: the record of post-mortem alteration and a tool for palaeodietary reconstruction

This study applies an intra-skeletal sampling strategy to examine post-mortem alteration of archaeological human bone from west Mexico, and to reconstruct ancient diet. Human bone from the Chupicuaro culture (Mexico, Preclassic period) constitutes an ideal material with which to examine subsistence strategies because the specific hydrothermal environment in which the population lived would have provided certain food components (hydrothermal waters and carbonates) with distinct signature in Ca, Mg, F, Li, Sr, Mn, V and U values. Four to ten samples were taken from the long bones of six skeletons. Bone trace element content (Ca, P, F, Mn, Mg, Na, Li, V, Zn, Rb, Sr, Ba, Y, La, Ce, Nd, Th, U) and bone alteration parameters (crystallinity, organic matter and secondary calcite content) were analysed at the intra-skeletal level. Stable isotopic signatures (bone δ¹³C and δ¹⁸O_carbonate) and histological analyses were also performed on a single bone from each individual. Results indicate that all of the skeletons were affected by post-mortem mineralogical, structural and geochemical transformations. Biological bone δ¹³C values seem preserved for most of the individuals but an increase in crystallinity accompanies depletion in bone δ¹⁸O values. The combination of bone alteration parameters with bone elemental content shows that in this very specific context, a widespread dissolution-recrystallisation is unlikely. Of the hydrothermal tracers, Sr, F and Li were of particular interest because their retention in living tissues is related to the amount ingested. The intra-skeletal Li content does not reveal any pattern but Li depletion is not excluded. In contrast, Sr and F show a progressive intra-skeletal diagenetic enrichment likely due to gradual diffusion–adsorption processes. The bones with the lowest concentrations in these elements are assumed to yield the best representative ante-mortem values. The signal extracted from each skeleton, a very unusually high bone Sr, F and Li content, is interpreted as reflecting the consumption of the local hydrothermal products, which are also enriched in these elements.     

Why so many wings? A re-examination of avian skeletal part representation in the south-central Northwest Coast,USA

Ten years ago, I summarized hypotheses for the abundance of bird wing elements in archaeological sites and rejected the hypothesis that differential preservation caused this pattern in the Pacific Northwest Coast (Bovy, 2002). I also noted that distal wing elements (relative to proximal wings) dominated several assemblages in the Gulf of Georgia sub-region. I re-examine this issue, focusing on behavioral hypotheses for the abundance of distal wings. Ethnographic evidence is used to formulate predictions for the cultural explanations, which are tested using data from the late Holocene Watmough Bay (45SJ280) site, where distal wings comprise 98% of the large duck assemblage (n = 4195). Diving ducks, dabbling ducks, geese, loons and grebes all have more distal wing bones than expected, and were likely caught using submerged nets. The most plausible explanation for the prevalence of distal wing bones is either that only the distal wings were transported back to the sites (perhaps attached to skins) and/or the distal wings were discarded separately during cooking.     

The potential of bird remains for environmental reconstruction

Until relatively recently, studies of bird remains have been regarded as peripheral to mainstream research on early archaeological and palaeontological sites, rather than a potentially crucial factor in the reconstruction of the past environments in which hominids and other larger mammals were present This paper sets out to define the range of ecological information for a site which can be gained through study of the bird bones, using as an example the bones recovered in the excavations at Gorham's Cave, Gibraltar. © 1997 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Funeral practices and foodstuff behaviour: What does eat meat mean? Stable isotope analysis of Middle Neolithic populations in the Languedoc region (France)

The aim of this study is to reconstruct the dietary patterns and economic behaviours of Neolithic populations in the Northwestern Mediterranean using isotopic and archaeological data. Burials come from four sites located in Languedoc–Roussillon region in French Mediterranean area. These sites are dated from the Middle Neolithic period (ca. 4500–3500 BC). They represent the Chasséen culture, characterized by regional features, such as economy management, resulting from territorial control. For this investigation, a stable isotopes (δ¹³C and δ¹⁵N) method has been used on 50 human bone collagens and 28 associated animal bones. This method provides direct dietary information on the protein consumed including the relative amounts of marine vs. terrestrial and animal vs. plant proteins in diets. Isotopic results are mainly compared to archaeological data to understand economic distinctions and potential social status variations between different groups using specific funeral practices, i.e. lithic chamber graves vs. domestic/funeral pits. Results show that individuals buried in lithic chamber graves and those buried in pits did not have the same dietary pattern. This result suggests a possible differentiation between two socio-economic groups, i.e. consumers of resources from herding and from farming. No aquatic food appeared to be routinely consumed by these individuals despite a relative close proximity to sea and freshwater sources. Moreover, these outcomes lead us to hypothesize that: (1) funeral practices could be linked to specific economies and/or (2) to different social status and that (3) burial type and foodstuff could be an expression of religious worship. Further research could include data from other areas, such as Spanish Catalonia where there are funeral structures similar to Languedoc lithic chamber graves.     

Burning damage and small-mammal human consumption in Quebrada del Real 1 (Cordoba, Argentina): an experimental approach

The zooarchaeological study of small-vertebrate consumption requires a taphonomical approach to differentiate animal bones that were incidentally incorporated from those that were intentionally exploited in the past human subsistence. In order to make this distinction, the relationship between archaeological small-rodent burned bones and prehistoric human behavior was explored using an experimental cooking study as a modern analogue. During the cooking experiment the entire carcasses of three guinea pigs (Cavia porcellus) and two yellow-toothed cavies (Galea leucoblephara) were placed in the coals of an open fire that simulate a real campfire, rotating their positions until the meat was completely cooked. Subsequently, the intensity of burning damage and the loss of skeletal elements were analyzed at macroscopical levels. The data was used to identify cooking evidence in the Ctenomyidae and Caviidae rodent bones recovered from Quebrada del Real 1 (ca. 6000-300 BP, Córdoba, Argentina). Remarkable similarities between the archaeological and analogical records were found, including the distinctive burning pattern on the distal extremities of the unmeaty long bones (e.g, radii and tibiae), the high frequency of broken incisor teeth and the loss of autopodium elements. Based on these comparative results, it is suggested that the small-rodent assemblages of QR1 were primary accumulated by humans though butchery, cooking and consumption related activities. Extending this study to other archaeological sites in South America may help to identify the prehistoric bone collectors of these small-animals.     

The selection of bird bones for artefact production at Dutch neolithic sites

The bird bones used for artefacts at the Dutch neolithic site of Aartswoud were from birds that were not represented among the food remains. Studies at other contemporary sites show that this was also the case at some other sites. The bones seem to have been selected from birds of particularly large size. © 1997 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.