SOME THEORETICAL PROBLEMS IN GEOMORPHOLOGY

The author takes issue with a number of theoretical issues discussed in a recent book by Yu. G. Simonov, fellow Moscow University geomorphologist. A definition of the central problem in geomorphology as encompassing the interaction between endogenic and exogenic forces is said to leave out the role played by the landforms themselves in exerting an impact on those outside agents and, through them, on surface relief itself. Spiridonov favors a systems approach to geomorphology, but questions the suitability of the term “morphosystem” proposed by Simonov as a substitute for morphosculpture, signifying the impact of exogenic processes on landforms. Surface relief should be investigated as an open system, although some simplified situations, such as an enclosed drainage system, might be studied in terms of closed systems, making possible the use of mathematical techniques. The importance of the application of formal logic in geomorphic classification is stressed, and the use of synthetic parameters is favored for purposes of landform classification.     

A THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK FOR SMALL BUSINESS POLICY

A number of public policy issues have been discussed in this article, the most important of which are: 1. Small business would not need special consideration if our economy were basically a competitive one. 2. A large and growing segment of our economy has sufficient market and political power to make our economy basically non-competitive. 3. Small firms tend to provide price competition, to lead in the development of new products and processes, and to generate new innovations and new employment. 4. Government policy tends to create artificial economies of scale, giving an unwarranted advantage to the very large firm. As a first approximation, a policy of government neutrality on firms of varying size is needed. But, because of discriminations which already exist which favor large firms over small firms, special small business programs may be necessary to provide an equitable policy base. Unfortunately, programs designed to benefit all business, like the investment tax credit, tend to primarily benefit larger firms (Berney, 1979). This is the case for two reasons. First, there is a basic difference in production relationships: large firms tend to be more capital intensive and small firms more labor intensive. Second, the more complex a rule or regulation, the more costly it is for small business to use it. Consequently, even the employment tax credit, which should benefit the small firm is not used by them. Instead, it tends more to benefit the larger firm. Neutrality, as a governmental policy, would appear to demand different treatment for firms of varying size. As an example, the “regulatory flexibility” concept applies different standards to different sized firms so that the burden of regulation is more equitably distributed. The concept of encouraging or requiring financial institutions and other lenders to establish “dual prime rates” is a further example. Since small firms appear to have much higher debt to equity ratios and rely more heavily on shorter-term bank credit, they are more heavily burdened by a tight money policy which forces increases of interest rates. Thus, dual prime rates help to spread the burden of rising interest costs more equally. As many people prefer to work for themselves, equalizing the burden of government policy could only serve to increase the basic growth rate for small business, thus providing an easier start for entrepreneurs and would encourage a more rapid rate of economic growth. None of these discussions, however, argues that small business should be protected from failure. The more efficient firms will succeed and prosper, and the least efficient will not. Many currently successful entrepreneurs learn how to improve their production processes or managerial skills from their failures. What is being recommended as a first step is that government should concentrate on equalizing burdens and benefits in order to achieve true neutrality. If private economies of scale do indeed exist, new firms must grow to survive; what the government should not create are artificial economies of scale with public policy. A strong argument for further action can also be made: it appears that significant external benefits are produced by an economic system with a dynamic small business sector. Since these benefits go to society as a whole rather than entrepreneurs alone in the form of increased profits, a freely operating market without government assistance does not generate as many new small businesses as would be optimal for our society. To internalize the benefits that come from small business, governmental programs need to be devised to increase the rate of return on new, innovative small businesses. Should this happen, we could then anticipate increased rapid rates of innovation and technological change, more rapid rates of employment growth, expanded price competition in all sectors of the economy, and improved export capabilities, in short, true flexibility in our capitalistic system.     

THEORETICAL ASPECTS OF THE CARTOGRAPHIC RESEARCH METHOD

Some observations about the theory of cartography focus on conceptual and definitional aspects. The subfield concerned with theory is “map science” (Russian, kartovedeniye), and the appearance of competitive subfields like “metacartography” and “cartology” is found undesirable. Definitional problems occur both at the input end of cartography, in the relationship between cartography and the data-producing disciplines, and at the output end, between cartography and map-using disciplines. An effort is made to delimit the science of cartography both in the data-processing stage and in the map-using stage, which is discussed in the context of the cartographic method of research. Cartography is also conceptualized as the “cartographic method of cognition,” involving a continuity of data survey, map compilation (the science of cartography) and map use.     

THE SPATIAL MONOPSONY: A THEORETICAL ANALYSIS*

ABSTRACT. In this paper some of the most important properties of the behavior of a spatial monopsonist are derived. Many results are mirror images of corresponding results for the spatial monopolist. A few results are, however, genuinely new. A lot of effort is spent in comparing the properties of the profit function under three different pricing policies, f.o.b. (mill)-pricing, uniform delivered pricing, and spatial price discrimination. It is shown, for example, how the profitability and welfare consequences of the different policies are related to the shapes of the supply and demand functions. It is argued that the theory may have important applications in economic analyses of renewable natural resources such as forests, where total transportation costs are nonnegligible.     

A THEORETICAL ATTENUATION MODEL FOR EARTHQUAKE-INDUCED GROUND MOTION

A theoretical attenuation model of earthquake-induced ground motion is presented and discussed. This model is related directly to physical quantities such as source and wave motion parameters. An attenuation formula for rms acceleration of ground motion is derived and verified using acceleration data from moderate-sized earthquakes recorded in Iceland from 1986 to 1997. The source parameters and the crustal attenuation are computed uniformly for the applied earthquake data. Furthermore, attenuation formulas for peak ground acceleration are put forward.     

THEORETICAL REQUISITES FOR THE MAPPING OF THE HUMAN HABITAT

Some general theoretical principles guiding thematic mapping are stated in connection with a long-term program for mapping the environment of Siberia. Environment, in this context, is understood in the broad sense of human habitat, comprising physical environment, population and economy. The author views cartography as a branch of information science, and stresses the importance of the system approach to the compilation of environment maps, which in the case of physical maps would involve the principles of geosystems theory. An effort should be made to show spatial linkages, which are regarded as the principal function of environment maps. Of particular relevance are synthetic landscape maps and predictive maps, showing the dynamic trends of geographical phenomena. The informativeness of thematic maps can be increased by preliminary data processing yielding coefficients of correlation and regression lines, which would then be mapped.     

旅游地形象资源的理论认知与开发对策

全面认识旅游资源对旅游开发具有重要意义。本文在比较和分析传统旅游资源认知方式的基础上,引入形象资源概念,从旅游地形象的概念和形成,产品意义上的形象资源认知和旅游者对形象资源的心理认知等几方面对这一问题加以探讨,并提出了形象资源开发对策。     

人文地理学理论的多元性

在西方地理学界,八十年代以后,人主义与后现代主义思潮兴起,推动了人地理学理论的多元化发展,在人地理研究中,针对不同性质的问题,应采用与之相对应的适合理论,而不应不顾问题的属性,盲目地追逐理论的新奇时髦。理论与问题的统一性,是运用理论成败的关键。     

西方城市绅士化理论纷争及启示

西方城市绅士化研究自20世纪60年代出现以来,历经近半个世纪,已经形成相对完整的学术流派和理论体系。其中最具代表性的要数NeilSmith从政治经济学角度提出的"地租落差"理论,强调内城区绅士化住宅的供给和生产,以及DavidLey从后工业社会城市转型角度强调绅士化群体的文化需求和住宅消费。不同理论学派在绅士化成因等问题上存在不同的理解与争议,了解西方主流绅士化理论流派,以及探讨绅士化概念与理论演进的脉络、特征和趋向,有助于更好地开展中国城市绅士化研究。     

老年人口迁移研究述评

老年人口迁移是老龄化社会的重要现象,它以提高生活质量为动机,具有重要的经济社会功能和独特的发展规律。本文系统梳理了发达国家成熟的老年人口迁移理论和实证研究进展,研究了老年人口迁移的宏观背景、迁移理论、迁移决策模型、迁移时空特征和迁移综合效应,构建了老年人口的研究框架。最后,针对我国老年人口迁移的研究现状进行了述评,并提出了未来的研究展望。     

城镇化测定方法的理论思考与案例研究

城镇化水平测定的核心是界定城镇地域和城镇人口,建国以来,我国城镇地域和城镇人口界定标准经历了多次变化,本文系统梳理了我国不同时期城镇地域和城镇人口的界定标准,并进行了评述。基于城镇化的内涵,借鉴国外比较成熟的做法,从我国实际情况出发,提出了不打破行政区划、分政区层次、按照人口密度界定城镇地域的研究理念,其中,"区级"政区人口密度应超过2000人/km²,"镇街级"政区人口密度应超过3000人/km²,"村居级"政区人口密度应超过1000人/km²。在曲阜市、嘉祥县的应用研究表明,该方法具有较强的可操作性,测定的结果比较符合实际。     

廊道遗产:概念、理论源流与价值判断

进入21世纪以来,我国跨区域大型遗产越来越受到社会各界的关注,这种现象的背后隐含着深刻的社会文化背景。为了深入剖析大型遗产热的深层原因,笔者在美国遗产廊道和欧洲文化线路的理论基础上,对两者进行中国化的理论解读后,提出廊道遗产概念。本文在理清廊道遗产两条理论源流的基础上,深度挖掘廊道遗产文化价值,解析其政治、经济、教育三种衍生功能,以说明廊道遗产的现代价值体现是中华民族文化复兴的重要部分,是中华民族伟大复兴在遗产和文物保护领域的具体体现。廊道遗产的合理保护与开发利用关乎中华民族的复兴大业。     

城市旅游综合体:概念建构与理论来源

研究城市旅游综合体概念的基本理论问题是搭建该领域理论平台的基础。按照实证-规范-实证的逻辑思路,通过文献分析和过程还原对城市旅游综合体概念的形成和理论来源进行了研究。结果显示,城市旅游综合体研究尽管涵盖了地理空间、产业组织、服务经济和要素整合四个视角,但"空间"和"产业"两个属性才是其概念建构的基础,快速城市化背景下以追求资源集约化利用水平为目标的"经营城市"理念则是城市旅游综合体形成的理论源泉。文章认为,城市旅游综合体是一种特殊的旅游地域系统形态,从人地相互作用的角度对其进行理解是将后续研究引向深入的必然。