SOME THEORETICAL PROBLEMS IN GEOMORPHOLOGY

The author takes issue with a number of theoretical issues discussed in a recent book by Yu. G. Simonov, fellow Moscow University geomorphologist. A definition of the central problem in geomorphology as encompassing the interaction between endogenic and exogenic forces is said to leave out the role played by the landforms themselves in exerting an impact on those outside agents and, through them, on surface relief itself. Spiridonov favors a systems approach to geomorphology, but questions the suitability of the term “morphosystem” proposed by Simonov as a substitute for morphosculpture, signifying the impact of exogenic processes on landforms. Surface relief should be investigated as an open system, although some simplified situations, such as an enclosed drainage system, might be studied in terms of closed systems, making possible the use of mathematical techniques. The importance of the application of formal logic in geomorphic classification is stressed, and the use of synthetic parameters is favored for purposes of landform classification.     

A THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK FOR SMALL BUSINESS POLICY

A number of public policy issues have been discussed in this article, the most important of which are: 1. Small business would not need special consideration if our economy were basically a competitive one. 2. A large and growing segment of our economy has sufficient market and political power to make our economy basically non-competitive. 3. Small firms tend to provide price competition, to lead in the development of new products and processes, and to generate new innovations and new employment. 4. Government policy tends to create artificial economies of scale, giving an unwarranted advantage to the very large firm. As a first approximation, a policy of government neutrality on firms of varying size is needed. But, because of discriminations which already exist which favor large firms over small firms, special small business programs may be necessary to provide an equitable policy base. Unfortunately, programs designed to benefit all business, like the investment tax credit, tend to primarily benefit larger firms (Berney, 1979). This is the case for two reasons. First, there is a basic difference in production relationships: large firms tend to be more capital intensive and small firms more labor intensive. Second, the more complex a rule or regulation, the more costly it is for small business to use it. Consequently, even the employment tax credit, which should benefit the small firm is not used by them. Instead, it tends more to benefit the larger firm. Neutrality, as a governmental policy, would appear to demand different treatment for firms of varying size. As an example, the “regulatory flexibility” concept applies different standards to different sized firms so that the burden of regulation is more equitably distributed. The concept of encouraging or requiring financial institutions and other lenders to establish “dual prime rates” is a further example. Since small firms appear to have much higher debt to equity ratios and rely more heavily on shorter-term bank credit, they are more heavily burdened by a tight money policy which forces increases of interest rates. Thus, dual prime rates help to spread the burden of rising interest costs more equally. As many people prefer to work for themselves, equalizing the burden of government policy could only serve to increase the basic growth rate for small business, thus providing an easier start for entrepreneurs and would encourage a more rapid rate of economic growth. None of these discussions, however, argues that small business should be protected from failure. The more efficient firms will succeed and prosper, and the least efficient will not. Many currently successful entrepreneurs learn how to improve their production processes or managerial skills from their failures. What is being recommended as a first step is that government should concentrate on equalizing burdens and benefits in order to achieve true neutrality. If private economies of scale do indeed exist, new firms must grow to survive; what the government should not create are artificial economies of scale with public policy. A strong argument for further action can also be made: it appears that significant external benefits are produced by an economic system with a dynamic small business sector. Since these benefits go to society as a whole rather than entrepreneurs alone in the form of increased profits, a freely operating market without government assistance does not generate as many new small businesses as would be optimal for our society. To internalize the benefits that come from small business, governmental programs need to be devised to increase the rate of return on new, innovative small businesses. Should this happen, we could then anticipate increased rapid rates of innovation and technological change, more rapid rates of employment growth, expanded price competition in all sectors of the economy, and improved export capabilities, in short, true flexibility in our capitalistic system.     

THEORETICAL ASPECTS OF THE CARTOGRAPHIC RESEARCH METHOD

Some observations about the theory of cartography focus on conceptual and definitional aspects. The subfield concerned with theory is “map science” (Russian, kartovedeniye), and the appearance of competitive subfields like “metacartography” and “cartology” is found undesirable. Definitional problems occur both at the input end of cartography, in the relationship between cartography and the data-producing disciplines, and at the output end, between cartography and map-using disciplines. An effort is made to delimit the science of cartography both in the data-processing stage and in the map-using stage, which is discussed in the context of the cartographic method of research. Cartography is also conceptualized as the “cartographic method of cognition,” involving a continuity of data survey, map compilation (the science of cartography) and map use.     

THE SPATIAL MONOPSONY: A THEORETICAL ANALYSIS*

ABSTRACT. In this paper some of the most important properties of the behavior of a spatial monopsonist are derived. Many results are mirror images of corresponding results for the spatial monopolist. A few results are, however, genuinely new. A lot of effort is spent in comparing the properties of the profit function under three different pricing policies, f.o.b. (mill)-pricing, uniform delivered pricing, and spatial price discrimination. It is shown, for example, how the profitability and welfare consequences of the different policies are related to the shapes of the supply and demand functions. It is argued that the theory may have important applications in economic analyses of renewable natural resources such as forests, where total transportation costs are nonnegligible.     

A THEORETICAL ATTENUATION MODEL FOR EARTHQUAKE-INDUCED GROUND MOTION

A theoretical attenuation model of earthquake-induced ground motion is presented and discussed. This model is related directly to physical quantities such as source and wave motion parameters. An attenuation formula for rms acceleration of ground motion is derived and verified using acceleration data from moderate-sized earthquakes recorded in Iceland from 1986 to 1997. The source parameters and the crustal attenuation are computed uniformly for the applied earthquake data. Furthermore, attenuation formulas for peak ground acceleration are put forward.     

THEORETICAL REQUISITES FOR THE MAPPING OF THE HUMAN HABITAT

Some general theoretical principles guiding thematic mapping are stated in connection with a long-term program for mapping the environment of Siberia. Environment, in this context, is understood in the broad sense of human habitat, comprising physical environment, population and economy. The author views cartography as a branch of information science, and stresses the importance of the system approach to the compilation of environment maps, which in the case of physical maps would involve the principles of geosystems theory. An effort should be made to show spatial linkages, which are regarded as the principal function of environment maps. Of particular relevance are synthetic landscape maps and predictive maps, showing the dynamic trends of geographical phenomena. The informativeness of thematic maps can be increased by preliminary data processing yielding coefficients of correlation and regression lines, which would then be mapped.     

人文地理学理论的多元性

在西方地理学界,八十年代以后,人主义与后现代主义思潮兴起,推动了人地理学理论的多元化发展,在人地理研究中,针对不同性质的问题,应采用与之相对应的适合理论,而不应不顾问题的属性,盲目地追逐理论的新奇时髦。理论与问题的统一性,是运用理论成败的关键。     

城市居住空间分异的理论基础与研究层次

本系统总结国外城市社会地理学自60年代以来的发展,作认为激进马克思主义流派的社会空间统一体理论应当是城市居住空间分异研究的理论基础。该理论认为城市地域内人地关系一一人类与他们生活的物质、社会环境的关系构成研究城市社会地理的基础。人(个体与群体)与周围的环境之间的双向互动(Interacting)的连续过程,就是社会空间统一体：一方面,人创造、调整城市空间,同时他们生活工作的空间又是他们存在的物质、社会基础。邻里、社区可改变、创造和保持定居的价值观、态度和行为;另一方面,价值观、态度和行为这些派生之物也不可避免地影响邻里和社区,而且连续的城市过程产生变化的城市空间,使经济、人口、社会和科技力量在不同水平上相互作用得以延续和发展。本系统介绍了社会空间统一体理论的发展沿革,然后指明城市居住空间研究的层次。     

THE GRAVITY MODEL AND HIERARCHICAL SPATIAL SYSTEMS: THEORETICAL AND EMPIRICAL OBSERVATIONS

The gravity model in its basic forms postulates that the volume of interaction between two places will be positively related to the populations (masses) of the two places and inversely related to their distance apart. Although it is not strictly speaking a hierarchical model, it is often used to explain flows among places that constitute a hierarchical spatial system. This paper is specifically concerned with the effect of hierarchical spatial structure on the performance of the gravity model. Accordingly, I will examine first the effect of hierarchical structure on the volume of interaction between places and second the degree to which the gravity model incorporates these hierarchical effects. Third, suggestions will be made for the improvement of the gravity model's performance by an explicit incorporation of a hierarchical element. The performance of the gravity model will be examined for both one-way and two-way flows between places.     

"全球地域化"思想及对区域发展的意义

本文认为罗伯逊"全球地域化"范式有六个核心概念,"全球场域"、"普遍主义-特殊主义"是在论述全球与地方的互动关系; "特殊性空间"、"寻找基本教义"、"存心怀旧"和"地域化"则建构了这一范式的基本分析框架.罗伯逊的"全球地域化"是一种批判性的全球化,也是一种"和而不同"的全球化.由于这一范式包含了自上而下的"全球地域化"和自下而上的"地域全球化"的双向过程,且已经形成了一套完整的分析框架,从而实现了对"全球化"与"本土化"两极化论争的真正超越.对区域发展也具有极为重要的启示意义.