CHEMICAL ANALYSES OF GLASS BEADS FOUND IN TWO SARMATIAN BURIALS*

The chemical compositions of 14 glass beads from two Early Sarmatian-period burials were determined. Al, Ca, Fe, Mg, K, Na, and Si were measured by electron probe microbeam analysis, while the Co, Cu, Ga, Mn, Ni, Pb, Rb, Sr, Th, Ti, Y, Zn, and Zr contents were measured using energy dispersive X-ray fluorescence. All the beads can be classed as low-magnesia soda-lime-silica glasses. The blue glass beads examined in this study were coloured with Co and Cu containing minerals. Cluster analysis and principal components analysis suggest that two distinct glass recipes were used to manufacture these beads.     

Intra-skeletal variability in trace elemental content of Precolumbian Chupicuaro human bones: the record of post-mortem alteration and a tool for palaeodietary reconstruction

This study applies an intra-skeletal sampling strategy to examine post-mortem alteration of archaeological human bone from west Mexico, and to reconstruct ancient diet. Human bone from the Chupicuaro culture (Mexico, Preclassic period) constitutes an ideal material with which to examine subsistence strategies because the specific hydrothermal environment in which the population lived would have provided certain food components (hydrothermal waters and carbonates) with distinct signature in Ca, Mg, F, Li, Sr, Mn, V and U values. Four to ten samples were taken from the long bones of six skeletons. Bone trace element content (Ca, P, F, Mn, Mg, Na, Li, V, Zn, Rb, Sr, Ba, Y, La, Ce, Nd, Th, U) and bone alteration parameters (crystallinity, organic matter and secondary calcite content) were analysed at the intra-skeletal level. Stable isotopic signatures (bone δ¹³C and δ¹⁸O_carbonate) and histological analyses were also performed on a single bone from each individual. Results indicate that all of the skeletons were affected by post-mortem mineralogical, structural and geochemical transformations. Biological bone δ¹³C values seem preserved for most of the individuals but an increase in crystallinity accompanies depletion in bone δ¹⁸O values. The combination of bone alteration parameters with bone elemental content shows that in this very specific context, a widespread dissolution-recrystallisation is unlikely. Of the hydrothermal tracers, Sr, F and Li were of particular interest because their retention in living tissues is related to the amount ingested. The intra-skeletal Li content does not reveal any pattern but Li depletion is not excluded. In contrast, Sr and F show a progressive intra-skeletal diagenetic enrichment likely due to gradual diffusion–adsorption processes. The bones with the lowest concentrations in these elements are assumed to yield the best representative ante-mortem values. The signal extracted from each skeleton, a very unusually high bone Sr, F and Li content, is interpreted as reflecting the consumption of the local hydrothermal products, which are also enriched in these elements.     

Evaluation of bone strontium as a measure of seafood consumption

The recognition that bone strontium/calcium ratios reflect dietary levels of strontium and that seawater has a high strontium content led some archaeologists to infer that seafood consumption produces high Sr/Ca ratios in bone. Analyses of seawater and of marine organisms reveal, however, a marine trophic effect comparable to the trophic effect seen in terrestrial food chains. This marine trophic effect reduces the Sr/Ca levels in seafood such that marine dietary resources have Sr/Ca levels comparable to those of terrestrial resources. Thus, bone Sr/Ca ratios can not differentiate consumption of marine and terrestrial resources. Also, Sr/Ca of bones from archaeological sites where seafood was an important component of diet were found to be within the range of entirely terrestrial diets. Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

THE DESIGN OF EVALUATION OF ASSAYS OF TRACE ELEMENTS IN A FOSSIL BONE*

The flame atomic absorption spectroscopy method of analysis of trace elements (Mn, Sr, and Cu) in a mammoth's bone and the method of estimation of the data using regression analysis are described. The concentration fields of the single elements in a cross-section through the bone are well described by a fourth degree polynomial. The minimum values and their coordinates have been determined. A method of determination of the original concentrations of trace elements in fossil bones is described further. The approximating features of the regression exponential equations and of the diffusion functions of various shapes were determined and a method for calculating the concentrations and diffusion properties of the bones once deposited in the soil is suggested. The original trace element concentration can be estimated by extrapolation of a suitable exponential or diffusion function.     

SCIENTIFIC ANALYSIS OF ROMAN GLASS FROM AUGUSTA PRAETORIA

Fifty-five fragments of Roman glass from Augusta Praetoria (Aosta, Italy) were analysed by inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectroscopy determining 15 elements (Si, Na, Ca, Al, Fe, Mg, Mn, Ti, Sr, Ba, Cr, Ni, Cu, Co and Pb) on dissolved samples; in addition, potassium was determined by flame atomic absorption spectroscopy. The analytical results indicate that all the fragments, with one exception, are silica-soda-lime glasses; (he exception is a potash glass. Cluster analysis was performed on the analytical data by accounting for either 14 (all the elements searched for but Ni and Pb) or eight elements (after further removal of Si, Fe, Mn, Cr, Cu and Co from the data set). The results obtained indicate that, once colouring and decolouring agents are removed, the classification of the glasses seems to be mainly determined by chronology; separate groups within coeval fragments may indicate different provenances.     

THE FUNDAMENTAL RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ANCIENT DIET AND THE INORGANIC CONSTITUENTS OF BONE AS DERIVED FROM FEEDING EXPERIMENTS

The levels of ten elements (phosphorus, calcium, magnesium, strontium, barium, potassium, sodium, zinc, iron, and aluminium) have been measured in the femurs and humeri of laboratory rats grown on test diets as a model for palaeodietary studies of excavated human skeletons. High levels of dietary fibre correlate with lower Ca and higher Sr and Ba in the bone. High values of the dietary Sr/Ca ratio correlate with high Sr levels in the bone. High levels of dietary protein correlate with lower Sr and higher Zn. High values of the ratio Ba/Ca and lower levels of Fe correlate with higher levels of Ba. Because bone levels typically are controlled by several dietary components, variation of the levels of a given element in the diet does not necessarily translate into analogous variations in bone. Only K and Fe in bone correlate highly with their levels in diet. The failure of bone Sr, Ba, and Zn to correlate positively with dietary levels is fully explicable in terms of their interdependence on other dietary components, such as Ca, P, Fe, protein, and fibre.     

Micro-sampling of human bones for mobility studies: diagenetic impacts and potentials for elemental and isotopic research

The nature of long bone formation and the pathways of interaction between bone samples and the burial environment suggest that portions of the bones disconnected from the arterial system are resistant to diagenetic alteration. Preliminary work on femurs from Early Bronze Age hunter-gatherers in Cis-Baikal, Siberia shows that the nature and progression of chemical changes in the bone matrix due to microbial attack can be analyzed using laser ablation inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry. Intra-osteon variability in elemental concentrations and strontium isotope ratios (⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr) indicate the presence of unaltered portions of bone within diagenetically modified bone and suggest that useful data remain accessible. These biogenic signals can potentially be useful for mobility research in broad terms and the smaller timescales within an individual's lifetime (months, years), accessible therein. Laser ablation micro-sampling of femur specimens showed that intra-osteon elemental composition of Ba, Re, and Cs varied within and was correlated between multiple osteons of a single bone. Portions of chemically unaffected bone were identified within, and effectively discriminated from diagenetically altered bone tissue. Areas showing visual alterations and erratic or uncorrelated Ca and Sr elemental results also had anomalous Sr isotope ratios, suggesting diagenetic alteration in those places. Compositional and isotopic analysis of intact portions of bone supports the hypothesis that hunter-gatherer groups in Cis-Baikal made numerous major movements during their lives. Microscopic analysis of long bones clarifies aspects of biodeterioration and correlations between trace elemental results and diagenetic alteration. Micro-sampling of intact portions of bone expands the scope of available materials for research on mobility and other aspects of human past behavior.     

MULTIVARIATE ANALYSIS OF THE ENERGY DISPERSIVE X-RAY FLUORESCENCE RESULTS FROM BLUE AND WHITE CHINESE PORCELAINS*

The energy dispersive X-ray fluorescence technique was employed to study non-destructively the surface of 66 samples of Chinese porcelain, of different periods and origins, and determine the contents of 13 chemical elements, namely, Ti, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, Ga, Pb, Rb, Sr, Y and Zr. Principal components analysis was performed on these 13 variables, and scatter plots, incorporating the first, second and third principal components, used to study the clustering behaviour of the data. Based on these results, discriminant analysis was then performed on the data, and discriminant functions established for attributing the period and origin of the porcelains.     

The effect of cremation on the study of trace elements

Cremation was a frequent practice during the Bronze and Iron Ages in Europe. The destruction caused by this rite has meant that there are few anthropological studies of this period and that the amount of information that has been obtained is limited. Most studies deal with the number of individuals and the temperature of cremation. At present, however, studies are under way to determine the possibility of carrying out analyses of trace elements on cremated individuals in order to determine their diet. The present study, carried out at a necropolis with two kinds of burial (S'Illot des Porros, Mallorca, Iron Age), presents new data regarding the diagenetic effects differentiating cremated from buried bones. The levels of Sr, Ca, Ba, Zn, Cu and Mg in the spongy and cortical tissue of 197 femurs are analysed. The results obtained at this necropolis demonstrate that only the levels of calcium and magnesium in the cortical tissue of cremated bones increase, so diagenesis acts in the same way in cremated and non-cremated bones in this necropolis.     

Identifying food provenience using Sr/Ca ratio in human enamel

The strontium (Sr) concentration in bioapatite of human bone and teeth reflects the Sr concentration in food that is differentiated by two major factors: an abundance of Sr in local soils and the biopurification effect along the trophic levels. Eastern Syria is an area with a relatively high concentration of Sr within the Euphrates valley and a low concentration of Sr beyond the valley. For this reason, the strontium/calcium (Sr/Ca) ratio in human enamel retrieved from skeletons buried in cemeteries within the Euphrates valley may be used as a proxy for food provenience in a local population. A sample of human teeth (N = 72) from Tell Ashara and Tell Masaikh was divided into seven temporal subsets covering periods between c.2200 bce and the early 20th century ce . A significant difference in Sr/Ca values between temporal subsets is observed. The Sr/Ca values in later subsets are negatively correlated with δ¹³C values, indicating the wider exploitation of steppe areas outside the valley with more wild C4 grasses and a low Sr concentration. For periods with lower Sr/Ca values (c.2200–1900 bce and 19th–20th centuries ce ) there is additional textual and isotopic evidence for food transportation from outside the river valley, supporting the interpretation of Sr/Ca values as a proxy for food provenience in this specific area.     

The Ba/Sr ratio,carious lesions,and dental calculus among the population buried in the church La Concepción (Tenerife,Canary Islands)

Certain trace elements may accumulate in bone in relation to dietary habits, so some of them are of interest in paleodietary analysis. This is the case with strontium (Sr) and barium (Ba), whose potential value as paleodietary indicators is enhanced by their relatively inert metabolic behaviour. The presence of carious lesions may indicate consumption of sugar and vegetables, whereas the etiology of dental calculus deposition is multifactorial, although some authors consider this as an indicator of protein consumption. Based on these facts we analysed (1) Ba, Sr, and calcium (Ca) content of inner cortical bone obtained from the ramus mandibularis, by atomic absorption spectrophotometry, (2) presence of teeth with carious lesions, and (3) presence of teeth with calculus deposition in 62 mandibles. All samples were obtained from the church La Concepción, an 18th century burial place in Tenerife. Gender was assessed by analysing genetic expression of amelogenin in some cases (14), and by inspection of pelvic bones when available (41 cases). We found (1) Carious lesions in 32 cases, and dental calculus, in 39; no association was observed between sex and presence of dental caries or calculus deposition, nor between the sex and the proportion of carious teeth nor the proportion of teeth with calculus deposition; (2) people buried near the altar (priests and individuals of the highest social class) showed a significantly higher proportion of teeth with dental calculus deposition (χ² = 5.36, p = 0.021); (3) bone Sr and bone Ba were significantly higher than the values observed in a control group of 10 modern omnivorous individuals; the lowest Sr values were observed among people buried near the altar; and (4) the Ba/Sr ratio was directly related with the proportion of teeth with carious lesions. These data suggest that there were differences in dietary pattern among the individuals belonging to different social classes; overall, consumption of vegetables was widespread, as shown by the high proportion of carious lesions, in relation with raised Ba/Sr ratio, whereas consumption of marine products was scarce.     

A study by thermal treatment and X-ray powder diffraction on burnt fragmented bones from tombs II,IV and IX belonging to the hypogeic necropolis of “Sa Figu” near Ittiri,Sassari (Sardinia,Italy)

In the course of an anthropological investigation of three tombs of the hypogeic necropolis of “Sa Figu” (near the village of Ittiri in North Sardinia, Italy), numerous burnt bone fragments were collected. In particular, from the whole necropolis we selected a tenth of long bones from tomb IV, a small fragment of femur from tomb II and four fragments belonging to tomb IX. The aim of this work is to determine a temperature range to which the bone fragments were heated, in order to assess a funerary cremation which was presumably used at that time to quickly and hygienically eliminate the flashy parts of deceased people rather than a purification rite with fires inside the sepulchres. We attempted to evaluate the range of temperature to which the bones were likely subjected, making a joint use of thermal treatment and powder X-ray diffraction investigations. From our X-ray line broadening results carried out with a modern approach (Rietveld method), it emerged that a group of five fragmented burnt bones (one specimen belonging to tomb IV, the other four from tomb IX) were subjected to a heat treatment in a temperature range from 600 and 750 °C. Conversely another group of bones (belonging to tombs II and IV) turned out to be subjected to temperatures not higher than 250 °C.     

CAMPANIAN POTTERY FROM ANCIENT BRUTTIUM (SOUTHERN ITALY): SCIENTIFIC ANALYSIS OF LOCAL AND IMPORTED PRODUCTS*

One hundred and fifty-seven sherds of Campanian pottery were analysed by inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectroscopy (ICP-OES) and flame emission spectroscopy (FES). The sherds were found in the course of archaeological excavations carried out at the sites of Sibari, Cosenza, Crotone, Locri, Reggio and Oppido Mamertina in southern Italy (ancient Bruttium, today Calabria). Analyses were carried out on dissolved samples, determining 15 elements per sample (Al, Fe, Ca, Mg, Ti, Mn, Sr, Ba, Cr, Cu, Y, La and Sc by ICP-OES, and Na and K by FES). Analytical data were subject to multivariate statistical treatment by hierarchical cluster analysis and principal components analysis. Results indicated different compositional groups, allowing one to separate suspected imports from Campania, Etruria and Sicily from each other and from likely local products. The latter could be further classified into different groups, comprising imitations of foreign forms as well as original local products.     

A pilot study into the effects of X-ray and computed tomography exposure on the amplification of DNA from bone

This research investigates the intersection of radiography and aDNA, two commonly used methods in bioarchaeology. The goal of this project was to investigate the effects of radiation on the ability to amplify DNA from bone. Bones (n = 124) from domestic pig (Sus scrofa) feet were randomly sorted into a control group and four treatment groups: (1) single exposure X-ray; (2) single exposure CT; (3) multiple exposures X-ray; and (4) multiple exposures CT. Number of PCR cycles required to amplify DNA in 100 bp, 200 bp and 400 bp segments were used as a proxy for the amount of available DNA. In the 200 bp CT sample, distal phalanges required significantly more amplification cycles than did the other bones and were removed from analysis. Results suggest that in general radiation exposure fragments DNA thereby decreasing the amount that is amplifiable. While these results are suggestive, further research is required to elucidate the degree to which radiation fragments DNA in archaeological specimens.     

The origin of black pigmentation in a sample of Mexican prehispanic human bones

The study of black patches and spots in prehispanic bones of Tlatelolco and Tlapacoya is presented. The chosen characterization techniques, X-ray Fluorescence, X-ray Diffraction, Scanning Electron Microscopy, Energy Dispersive X-ray Spectroscopy, Infrared Spectroscopy and Gas Chromatography are complementary and they all conclude that the bone black pigment is constituted, mainly, by amorphous carbon and some mineral inclusions. Gas Chromatography and Infrared Spectroscopy show that the pigment is constituted by organic compounds as aromatic hydrocarbons, mainly bitumen. An explanation on how the spots were formed is proposed.     

Severe lead contamination among children of samurai families in Edo period Japan

This paper presents evidence for severe lead contamination among children of samurai families living in a castle town in Edo period Japan (1603–1867). Excavated rib bones were analyzed by atomic absorption, and soft X-ray roentgenograms of long bones were taken. The median values of lead concentration in the bones of children 3 years of age and under(1241.0 μg Pb/g dry bone) and 4–6 years of age (462.5 μg Pb/g dry bone) were significantly higher than those of adult males (14.3 μg Pb/g dry bone) and females (23.6 μg Pb/g dry bone) (p < 0.001). In addition, that of children over 6 years of age (313.0 μg Pb/g dry bone) was significantly higher than those of adult males (p < 0.01) and adult females (p < 0.05). The median value of lead in the bones of children 3 years of age and under was over fifty times higher than that of their mothers (adult females). Hypertrophy was seen in the long bones of five samurai children. In this area, lead lines or lead bands were distinguished by soft X-ray roentgenogram. Samurai children suffered from severe lead contamination in Edo period Japan. When the mothers were nursing their children, the children might have ingested their mother’s white lead non-selectively.     

Calcium isotopes in archaeological bones and their relationship to dairy consumption

The calcium isotope ratios (δ^44/42Ca) of bones from humans and fauna from three archaeological sites, Taforalt, Abu Hureyra, and Danebury, are evaluated in order to assess whether calcium isotope ratios of bones can be used to detect dairy consumption by adult humans. At each site the fauna δ^44/42Ca is the same regardless of species, while the humans have lower δ^44/42Ca than the local animals by 0.24–0.41‰ (site means). However we cannot ascribe this difference to dairy consumption, given this human–faunal difference also occurs in Epipalaeolithic and Mesolithic adult humans, where dairy consumption is unlikely. Rather, this difference appears to be a result of differences in metabolic processes or other aspects of diet between humans and fauna. Minimal isotopic change in sequential acid leaches of bone powders and consideration of the high calcium concentration in bone suggest that bone calcium isotope ratios are not substantially affected by diagenetic change.     

A strontium isotope analysis on the relationship between ritual tooth ablation and migration among the Jomon people in Japan

Distinct patterns can be discerned in the extensive ritual tooth ablation found among the human skeletal remains of the Late–Final Jomon period (ca. 3200–2800 cal BP) in Japan. Based on comparative observations of sex and grave patterns in the skeletal remains, two major patterns in ritual tooth ablation, termed type 4I and type 2C, have been assigned to locals and immigrants, respectively. In order to test this hypothesis, strontium (Sr) isotope (⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr) analyses were performed on human skeletal remains from the Yoshigo shell mound in Aichi Prefecture, central Japan. Plants in the surrounding area were also examined to illustrate the geographic ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr distribution. The Sr isotopic variation in human tooth enamel (⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr = 0.70868–0.71028) was greater than that in human bones (⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr = 0.70871–0.70943). Individuals with higher Sr isotope ratios in their tooth enamel than seawater Sr values of 0.7092 can be identified as immigrants (36% of population). The presence of these isotopically identified immigrants between both type 2C and type 4I individuals does not support the previous hypothesis. The intra-population ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr distribution of tooth enamel of type 2C individuals showed a significantly higher mean ratio than that of type 4I individuals, suggesting a higher proportion of immigrants among the former.     

Strontium and calcium distribution in plants: Effect on palaeodietary studies

In palaeodietary studies it is assumed that no discrimination occurs during uptake by plants of calcium and strontium from the soil. Here, a compilation of distribution ratios is presented from which it is apparent that differences in Sr/Ca ratios within and between plants do exist. These differences affect Sr intake by humans and animals and thus should be taken into consideration when interpreting prehistoric human bone Sr levels in a dietary sense, and when selecting a herbivorous baseline species. In agricultural societies, human Sr intake may be diversified by differences in Sr/Ca ratios in various grain species and varieties.     

Microchemical and crystallographic analysis of human bones from Nasca,Peru. A possible method of direct dating of archaeological skeletal material

This paper provides two archaeometric equations obtained by crystal–chemical parameters for dating human bone samples from the archaeological site of Nasca, Peru. Based on radiocarbon dating, the burials span from 500 BC to AD 1000. Crystal–chemical modifications in bone hydroxylapatite over time were compared with a twentieth century skeleton from Italy. Chemical analysis was carried out by means of electron microprobe along a profile from the periosteal to the endosteal border of the midshaft of four human femurs. The results indicate that the Ca/P ratio is linearly correlated with time according to the equation t=7880.68Ca/P−12805.90 (r=0.97; r²=0.95). Bone apatite X-ray powder diffraction analysis showed a systematic increase in the (002) reflection intensity with time, according to the equation t=250.49h/a−1961.86 (r=0.98; r²=0.97). The two independent archaeometric equations permit good accuracy in dating osteoarchaeological remains from the south coast area of Peru. © 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.