论早期东欧犹太移民在美国的文化适应

从19世纪80年代开始一直到第一次世界大战初期,东欧犹太人为逃避俄国及其周边国家的反犹迫害,大举迁居美国。他们在迁居美国的初期,大多居住在“犹太城”中,固守犹太文化传统。持“盎格鲁遵从论”的强制同化主义者、推崇“熔炉论”的温和同化主义者和已经融入美国主流社会的来自德国的犹太人采取不同策略,以同化来自东欧的犹太移民（以下简称“东欧犹太移民”）,试图消除后者带来的异质文化对美国主流文化的冲击。面对这些同化压力,东欧犹太移民有何反应？他们是否最终完全同化于美国社会？他们走过一条怎样的文化适应之路？本文尝试做出解答。     

19、20世纪之交东欧的反犹暴行与犹太人迁居美国的浪潮

从19世纪80年代开始一直到第一次世界大战后初期,东欧犹太人掀起了移居美国的一次高潮,他们主要是为了逃避俄国及其周边地区在此期间不断爆发的反犹浪潮。其中绝大多数人准备永久定居于美国,故他们一般举家迁徙,返回东欧的人极少,其性别构成和年龄构成也比同时期的其他“新”移民群体平衡。     

用心险恶的日本“河豚计划”

二战期间,日本政府想利用犹太人的资本发展经济以支援战争,为其侵华效力。“九·一八”事变后,日本帝国主义侵占中国东北,为加强殖民统治,日本政府掀起了向中国东北移民的高潮。在组织日本移民的同时,他们还秘密制定了利用犹太资本来建设“满洲”的“河豚计划”,企图将大批欧洲犹太人移居到我国东北。日本人一直喜食河豚鱼,这项计划如此命名,意为经过日本改造过的犹太人,就像是去毒后的河豚鱼,对日本的侵华是有好处的。     

1881至1914年的东欧犹太移民潮与英国社会

东欧犹太人大规模移居英国的行动,是在19世纪欧洲人口大流动和东欧犹太人大规模外移的背号下,随着俄国大俄罗斯政策的推行而发生的。东欧犹太人的大规模涌入,在英国引起了一场相当罕见、自下而上的反移民运动。特别值得注意的是,英国本土犹太人不仅在总体上反对东欧犹太人大规模移居英国,而且从一开始就采取切实行动,在反移民运动方面做出了比非犹太人乃至英国官方更大的努力和实绩。     

试析苏联犹太移民问题的形成及影响

苏联犹太移民问题是苏联历史和政治、经济发展的产物。由于受多种因素的影响,苏联对犹太移民的意愿采取限制性的政策。由此产生了苏联政治生活中移民申请被拒绝这一特殊的政治群体。他们以移居苏联国外为其主要的政治目标。苏联犹太人的移民意愿及移民申请被拒绝的活动引起西方社会尤其是美国的关注,并在一段时期内成为影响美苏经济贸易关系的一项重要因素。戈尔巴乔夫实行的改革开放政策在一定程度上缓解了这一问题,此后苏联的解体使这一问题的性质和重要性均有所转变。     

试析犹太人在美国政治影响力提升的策略

20世纪中期以来,犹太人在美国政坛强势崛起,对美国公共事务产生强大影响。以"罗斯福新政"和"六日战争"为转折点,他们从边缘地位顺利进入美国社会政治生活的主流,在影响高层决策者、组织游说、政策制定等方面的能力全面提升,并使美国社会更愿意在支持以色列、推广大屠杀教育、救助苏联犹太人等体现犹太民族特殊利益的议程上满足其诉求。在这一过程中,美国犹太组织善于利用美国政治体制和社会文化赋予的政治机遇和空间,积极探索并实行了一系列有利于提升犹太社团政治影响力的组织和行为策略。     

美国犹太人同化进程初探

美国有600万犹太族裔,他们虽然在美国人口中只占不到3％,但其经济实力、政治能量和学术成就,都大大超过3％这个数字概念,在美国社会中占有十分突出的地位。尤其值得注意的是,对曾经在美国备受排斥的犹太族裔来说,虽然有了一个犹太国以色列的存在,却并没有吸引他们,美国的犹太人正以迅猛的势头同化进美国社会主流中。美国成了吸引世界犹太人的磁石,现在美国的犹太人比以色列国犹太人还要多一半以上。     

“六日战争”对美国犹太人族群认同的影响

20世纪60年代,"大屠杀"话语的传播引发了美国犹太人对族群命运的担忧。在"六日战争"前,面对阿拉伯国家的反犹宣传及其对以色列的重重围困,美国犹太人担心"再次大屠杀"会发生,从而促使美国犹太人对以色列的生存产生深度忧虑。美国犹太社团逐渐把维护以色列的特殊利益和争取美国社会对以色列的同情与支持,作为游说活动的主要目标。美国犹太游说组织通过舆论引导、公开呼吁、经济动员等方式积极进行游说。"六日战争"后,美国与以色列之间的特殊关系迅速发展。美国犹太人的民族自信心和自豪感显著提升,并自觉地将以色列与自身的命运紧密相连。他们在归属意愿、宗教情感、对以色列的文化兴趣、青年群体族群意识等层面表达对以色列的认同,以色列在美国犹太人族群认同中发挥的作用凸显。     

1654-1776年犹太人在北美殖民地的定居与发展

犹太人是早期到北美进行拓殖活动的民族之一。在欧洲大陆深受压迫的犹太人在广阔的北美大陆上艰苦创业,终于取得了一些成就。同时,犹太人在美洲也受到了不公平的待遇和歧视,为此,犹太移民进行了不懈的申诉与抗争。     

论17、18世纪德意志地区的宫廷犹太人

在17、18世纪,由于欧洲及德意志地区政治经济状况的变化、犹太人特殊的历史经历以及对居住地表现出来的“忠诚”和“弱民”地位等原因,在德意志地区出现了一个特殊的犹太人群体——宫廷犹太人。他们利用其经济方面的影响,积极参与在宫廷的军事斗争、政治生活和日常生活,受到宫廷的信任,取得了较高的社会地位。虽然他们与犹太社团有着一些冲突,但他们并没有忘记自己的犹太人身份,在管理犹太社团事务、形成新的犹太社团、传承犹太文化等方面发挥着独特的作用。这个时期宫廷犹太人的活动为犹太启蒙运动和犹太人的解放准备了条件。     

Arthur Koestler and his ties to Zionism and Jabotinsky

At the end of the nineteenth century, and more pronouncedly between the two World Wars, Jews in Eastern Europe created wide networks of credit cooperatives, which at their peak supported about a third of the non-Soviet Jewish population in Eastern Europe. The establishment and continuous management of these cooperatives were greatly assisted by the two major Jewish philanthropic organizations of the period, the Jewish Colonization Association (JCA) and the American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee (JDC). These organizations acted as charitable institutions but also as third-sector organizations which aspired both to assist and to socially engineer East European Jewish society. In British Mandate Palestine a Zionist branch of the movement was established, which was, however, free from the influences of these philanthropic organizations. The article describes and analyzes this little-researched phenomenon while seeking to place it within the theoretical frameworks of philanthropy and transnationalism. It concludes with an observational comparison between the political context in which Jewish credit cooperatives were created, namely East European ethnic regimes, and the Israeli ethnic democracy.     

Language and nation‐building in Israel: Hebrew and its rivals*

Abstract. The problem of language preceded the founding of Israel. In the nineteenth century, the emergence of political Zionism was accompanied by a revival of Hebrew. In the early years of Jewish resettlement in Palestine, Hebrew slowly emerged as the popular language, a compromise between the Yiddish spoken by Eastern European immigrants and the Arabic or Ladino current among many Middle Eastern Jews. After World War I, as educational institutions proliferated, the challenge of French and German as languages of instruction was blocked by teachers' strikes. With the establishment of the state and the massive influx of Jewish displaced persons, mostly speakers of Yiddish, that language, regarded as a potential threat to the primacy of Hebrew, was systematically fought by the country's political and cultural elite. Today, the position of Hebrew as the national language of Israel is secure. English, however, has been asserting its influence in an increasingly postindustrial and globalised society.     

“They Will Take the Country from Us”: Labor Zionism,the Origins and Legacy of the “Other” in Israeli Mass Media,and Hegemonic Narratives

After 1948, Israel's governing elites embarked on a rigorous program of state building and settling hundreds of thousands of Jewish immigrants. In the process, the elites, primarily from the leading Mapai party, developed a process of othering Jewish immigrants from Arab countries, Arab citizens, and Orthodox Jews. They were physically segregated in their own schools and communities, and the elite culture described them as a threat against the European culture of Jewish immigrants from central Europe. The process targeted Mizrahi Jews before moving on to deplore the “demographic threat” of Orthodox Jews and resulted in the current normative hegemonic discourse in Israel that paints numerous groups as threatening the state. This article proposes a four‐part model for understanding “the other” in Israel: contemporary denial and nostalgia for a homogenous past, the view of Zionism as a civilizing mission, the application of separation of ethnic groups in planning, and demographic fear of the other. Altogether, they paint a picture of an Israel that has not come to grips with its past, and therefore continues the process of “othering” in its contemporary ethnocratic framework. Combining the analysis of geographic separation, and planning and media, it presents an innovative understanding of Israeli society.     

“Suffer Not the Evil One”: Unitarianism and the 1826 Maryland Jew Bill

The 1826 Maryland Jew Bill was the most protracted and heated fight over Jewish political rights in the United States. For eight years, in the legislature, in newspapers, and in elections, Marylanders debated whether Jews should be allowed to hold government office or positions of public trust, a struggle that garnered journalistic coverage from throughout the country. Historians have not explained why Maryland, a state with very few Jews in the early nineteenth century, was the site of the country's largest debate over their legal status. This study argues that Unitarianism, which did not claim many adherents in Maryland at the time of the Jew Bill but occupied an outsized role in the state's debates about religious rights and Christian orthodoxy, is a key part of the story of Jewish rights in Maryland; the state's unique experience with Unitarianism is one of the causes of the state's unique place in the story of Jewish rights in the United States.     

“马斯基尔”与犹太社会——以启蒙视阈下的德国为个案

欧洲启蒙运动发生之后,德国犹太思想家马斯基尔以自由理性为旗帜,批评传统犹太教、发展世俗教育、提倡现代生活方式,引领犹太人走出隔都,对犹太社会产生了极为深刻的影响,也留下了惨痛的教训,越来越多的犹太人背离了民族传统。从此以后,传统与现代性的关系成为犹太史上的核心命题。本文以启蒙视阈下的德国尤其是柏林为个案,探讨社会转型时期犹太思想家对传统社会的重创,分析犹太文化与现代主义、德国主流文化多重汇集之后,犹太知识阶层无所适从的精神困境,从而为研究现代化背景下少数族群的身份认同以及亚文化的存续与发展提供借鉴。     

Commentary: Vernacular Regions of America

The practice of cross-timber log construction was one of the several culture traits the European immigrants brought to America beginning in the 17th century. Contrary to the opinions held by some observers, the tradition of log construction was introduced and implemented by the immigrants at different locations and different times. A familiarity with the evolution and characteristics of the European antecedents of log architecture is essential to the study of log construction in the United States. This study explores log architecture in a Finnish setting. Except for having contributed toward the development of the North European log construction technique before the migration to Finland, log architecture as practiced in Finland at the time of emigration to America, was more North European in character than “Finnish.” Moreover, folk traditions were in the process of change as they were subject to exposure to the invading industrial culture in the 19th century. The changes are manifest in log architecture as practiced at the time in Finland and on the cultural landscape the immigrants established in the United States.     

华人社区的冲突、控制与自治——"二战"前美国城市中的中国传统社会组织

在第二次世界大战以前,来到美国的中国移民基本上被华人社区中的中国传统的社会组织所控制。华人社区有四种基本的社会组织,即宗族、会馆、秘密社会和行会,这些组织的扩张是由于社区生活的需要和外部的压力。它们也强烈影响到华人社会的形成和发展,并在延缓中国移民的同化过程中扮演了一个重要角色。排华运动、组织的束缚和内部的争斗使中国移民与主流社会隔离了几十年,宗族的条规、方言的区别、利益的冲突等又破坏了中国移民的内部团结,这也导致了处于相对封闭状态的中国移民的同化过程非常缓慢。     

A TEXTILE WEB

The 1830s has been singled out as the decade in which the Swedish consumer market really started to expand. In the same period, cotton textile production expanded in the Gothenburg area. A small group of immigrant Jewish families played an important role in this development. The impact of Jewish merchants on the growth of the consumer goods market is consistent with international research. Their entrepreneurial activities and renewal of textile production and trade have been emphasized. This has, however, not been paid much attention to in the Swedish research. This article discusses what impact the Jewish immigrants had on the increase of the textile market in Gothenburg and its surroundings. Through a couple of case studies and examples, we want to elucidate the significance of Jewish textile production and trade: Jewish calico printers started up mass production of fashionable fabrics in the 1820s. Furthermore, Jewish merchants spread their goods to customers in the countryside in cooperation with Swedish pedlars. The authors also discuss different reasons why the Jews played such a significant role during this particular period: The role of the legislation, the Jewish textile tradition, access to capital, networks, effective distribution, a growing consumer demand, and the geographical context.     

Secularization of immigration policy vs. religion's influence on integration: Israel's non‐Jewish Jews' immigration in a comparative perspective

This article deals with the complex relationship between religion and immigration in Western countries, with an emphasis on Israel. The main argument it presents is that the legal procedures of immigration, i.e. laws relating to the acquisition of civil status, have undergone dramatic secularization, while religion's influence is expressed in the social and cultural aspects of the integration of immigrants belonging to religious minorities. This division reinforces the classical theory of secularization, as the formal boundaries of nations are not subject to religious affiliations, but it also supports the theories of competition and complementation between religion and secularism in the social sphere. The tension in the Israeli case between the immigration, naturalization and integration of non‐Jewish Jews, who are part of the extended Jewish population that is not defined by religious parameters, confirms this thesis. The immigration of hundreds of thousands of non‐Jewish Jews' under the Law of Return based on ethno‐national‐secular parameters is an ultimate expression of the secularization of Jewish nationality. On the other hand, the state's encouragement of non‐Jewish immigrants to convert to Judaism so that they can better assimilate into Jewish society signifies the importance of religion in the social integration aspect.