反教权主义与19世纪下半叶法国的教育世俗化

本文从探讨推动19世纪下半叶法国教育制度世俗化的意识形态——反教权主义着手,说明法国教育制度世俗化的独特性。反教权主义并不是一种系统的、统一的意识形态,而是反对教权过多干预社会和政治生活的思想体系。在19世纪下半叶的法国,以资产阶级共和派为主体的反教权主义者与政治上倾向于君主派的教权主义者之间的政治斗争推动了法国教育制度的世俗化。这种斗争决定了法国教育制度世俗化的进程及特征。     

The Supreme Court in the Nineteenth Century

At the beginning of the nineteenth century, we find a Court which has not yet found its role, and whose principal impact is deciding which litigant wins in a particular lawsuit. Chief Justice John Marshall, appointed in 1801, changes that; he and his successor, Roger B. Taney, are the dominant figures in the Courts over which they preside. From 1801 until 1864-sixty-three years-the nation had only two Chief Justices; during the same time, it had fifteen presidents. In the latter part of the nineteenth century, the Chief Justices are less dominant and influential, sharing their authority with several notable Associate Justices. By the end of the century, the Court is beginning to wrestle with the many problems facing the nation after a little more than a century of existence.     

Brain Physiology and the Mind in the Nineteenth Century

This article explores the integration of research and theory in nineteenth-century neurophysiology. Four generalities combine to explain their integration. They are the core beliefs of the neurologists, the pervasive habit of perceiving mind when observing behavior, the criteria for the existence of mind, and mind as an efficient cause. These generalities help explain specific choices made by certain researchers to work within the traditional model of the nervous system, to reject materialism, and to find intelligence and voluntary behaviors in physiological systems.