The demographic,socio‐economic and temporal contextualisation of the Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona collection of identified human skeletons (UAB collection)

Identified human skeletal collections are those in which basic demographic data (sex, age and biological origin) are known and are crucial for developing and testing osteological methodologies. It is important that the identified collection be contextualised, and in this way the collection will be considered a reference collection. To contextualise a collection requires documentation of the basic demographic data of the individuals (sex, age, year of birth, geographical area) as well as information concerning the socio‐economic and temporal context in which the individuals lived. The contextualisation of an identified collection is very important so the researchers can understand the ‘point of reference’ when applying a method to it or developing a new method. The purpose of this study is to contextualise the identified skeletal collection of the Universitat Autónoma de Barcelona (UAB) which currently contains 35 adult skeletons of both sexes. To carry out the objectives of the present study, the information about the individuals was collected from cemetery registers and compared with the information of the demographic and statistic public institutions of Spain. The results indicate that the UAB collection is formed only by Spanish nationals who mainly lived during the 20th century in Granollers (Barcelona, Spain). Both sexes are equally represented and all of the individuals are adults. They reflect the most current adult population structure of Catalonia and be treated as a Catalan reference sample of adults living in the 20th century. This collection offers special opportunities for demographic analysis, including validation studies of skeletal ageing and sexing methods that target adult individuals. The collection can also be used in conjunction with other reference samples to investigate secular and populational change in cranial form, sexual dimorphism and stature. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Metaphyseal fibrous defects in juveniles from medieval Norwich

Two juvenile skeletons excavated from medieval Norwich each have a well‐defined cystic cavitation. One involves the distal femur and the other the proximal tibia. The dry bone and radiographic appearance, as well as the location and age of the individuals, support a diagnosis of metaphyseal cortical defects. Although well‐known in clinical practice, especially in children, this appears to be the first published evidence for the condition in British archaeological material. No other anomalies were detected on the two skeletons. However, the occurrence of two cases in the same cemetery raises the possibility of a genetic influence in the condition. Copyright © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Possible cases of leprosy and tuberculosis in medieval Sigtuna,Sweden

In Sigtuna, Sweden, a medieval cemetery, including 227 skeletons, was analysed in 2006. On the outskirts of the churchyard, six skeletons with bone changes indicating systemic inflammatory disease were observed. Two out of three individuals with well‐preserved facial bone regions displayed signs of rhinomaxillary remodelling. Four of the afflicted exhibit severe bilateral alterations of the lower legs and phalanges of the feet and concentric atrophy of the metatarsals. In addition, one of the individuals exhibited a kyphosis in the lumbar vertebrae. In a discussion about alternative diagnoses, lepromatous leprosy and tuberculosis were identified as the causes of the destructive lesions in two individuals. Though the skeletal changes of the lower legs and feet in four cases demonstrate a close resemblance to secondary lesions of leprosy, the disease could not be confirmed. The skeletal changes of the last individual were unspecific and the possible causes several, rendering diagnosis difficult. The burial locations imply that the afflicted persons belonged to a lower social stratum. Due to the significantly higher frequency of pathological changes in the cemetery compared to other cemeteries in the town, the individuals could be regarded as fellow sufferers among others with various medical conditions. The bioarchaeological identification of systemic infectious diseases of a group of individuals of this size is unique to north of Scania in Sweden, where only a few cases of leprosy and tuberculosis have previously been diagnosed. The significance of the present study is emphasised by the interconnection between the afflicted, the archaeological context and the knowledge of the medieval society in Sigtuna. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Age Estimation by Tympanic Bone Development in Foetal and Infant Skeletons

This article analyses age‐related changes in the development of the temporal bone in a sample of foetal and infant skeletons to contribute to the estimation of age by means of this skeletal element in bioarchaeological and forensic contexts. The sample was selected from a contemporary documented skeletal collection and is constituted by the temporal bones of individuals of both sexes (n = 37) with ages from 23 weeks of gestation up to 11 postnatal months. Different states of fusion of the tympanic ring and development of the tympanic plate were scored separately, and intra‐observer consistency was evaluated. Both documented chronological age and skeletal estimated age were examined in relation to successive stages of fusion and development in the pre‐ and postnatal periods. It was found that the state of fusion of the tympanic ring is especially useful in the discrimination of foetal and postnatal individuals, whereas the development of the tympanic plate is helpful in the differentiation of individuals from and below 3 postnatal months. Even though a certain degree of overlap between successive stages was observed, the fusion of the tympanic ring and the development of the tympanic plate constitute good indicators of age in foetal and infant skeletons. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Reconstruction of Socioeconomic Status in the Medieval (14th–15th Century) Population of Grevenmacher (Luxembourg) Based on Growth,Development and Diet

Numerous historical sources describe many aspects of the estate‐based society in medieval times; the detection of socioeconomic status within populations through skeletal remains is a topic of growing interest in anthropological studies. In medieval times, it was common for members of high social rank to be buried within or next to a church. This was certainly the case in Grevenmacher (Luxembourg), where remains of a church building and an adjacent cemetery from the 13th until the beginning of the 15th century were subjected to archaeological and anthropological analysis. By integrating archaeological and anthropological elements, as well as stable isotope analysis, we documented osteological manifestations as indicators of diet differentials in two subsamples (first group consists out of 56 individuals, second one out of 184 individuals) from the medieval cemetery of Grevenmacher. We could distinguish two subsamples that we assumed as different in their socioeconomic status with regards to the burials' position in the cemetery and burial characteristics. Differences in osteological traits such as bone length, stature and body mass indicated differences in diet between sample groups. To substantiate these outcomes, stable isotopic analysis (δ¹³C, δ¹⁵N) were made; the results displayed a clear separation between the sample groups on the basis of their diet. Therefore, we were able to confirm certain individuals in the medieval population of Grevenmacher in relationship to their socioeconomic status. Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Maxillary Sinus Infection in a 19th‐Century Almshouse Skeletal Sample

In 1984, the Monroe County Parks Department in the Highland Park section of Rochester, New York, accidentally unearthed part of an unmarked cemetery while landscaping. The cemetery was in use from approximately 1826 to 1863 and was associated with the Monroe County Almshouse. Anthropological examination of dental and skeletal pathology revealed a high incidence of dental infection, known to occasionally be a causal agent of maxillary sinus infection. Therefore, maxillary sinus infections in this sample were studied to ascertain their relationship with dental infections, sex, and age at death. The maxillary sinuses of 99 skeletons were examined for evidence of infection. The presence, location, type and extent of dental infections in the posterior teeth were also recorded. Half the sample exhibited bone remodelling in the maxillary sinus (54 individuals). Dental infections were observed in 82 individuals. Forty‐eight demonstrated signs of dental infection and maxillary sinusitis. Statistical analysis revealed that dental infection and maxillary sinus infection were not statistically related. Rather, a rhinogenic method of infection seems likely, which would appear related to the squalid air quality the 19th‐century poor were exposed to in the almshouse and city tenements. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Weapon‐related Cranial Lesions from Medieval and Renaissance Turin,Italy

Archaeological excavations carried out in the square around the Cathedral of S. Giovanni in Turin brought to light burials referable to the medieval and Renaissance periods. The anthropological examination of the skeletal remains allowed to identify two skeletons from the medieval period (10th–11th centuries) and four skeletons from the Renaissance age (15th century) showing weapon‐related cranial injuries. These peri mortem lesions are indicators of interpersonal aggression and in particular of armed conflicts. The two individuals from the early medieval period presented three traumas consisting in sharp force lesions caused by bladed weapons. As regards the Renaissance sample, the majority of the nine peri mortem injuries were sharp force wounds, followed by a blunt force trauma. These distribution patterns might reflect different fighting techniques, whereas the side distribution and location of the skull trauma provide further indications on the fighting modalities. Identification of the weapons that caused these traumas is suggested. The lack of post‐cranial wounds at Piazza S. Giovanni might be explained by the greater attention paid to the head, which was the main target of attack, or by adequate protection of the body through medieval and Renaissance armours. Otherwise, the wounds in the body would have been found only in the soft tissues, with no involvement of the bones. Despite the presence of weapon injuries, the results obtained from the study of the Renaissance sample are different from the findings of other contemporary battlefields. It is highly likely that the individuals of the Renaissance age were not young soldiers employed in war episodes and brought back for burial in Turin after battles that had taken place elsewhere. Instead, they were probably individuals who had died in riots or in other violent city episodes, as the historical records for the Renaissance age seem to confirm. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

A Note on the Demographic and Health Pattern of a Historical Sleeping Sickness Cemetery at Letsholathebe Memorial Hospital,Maun, Botswana

A part of a historical cemetery used to bury victims of sleeping sickness in Maun, Botswana, was recently uncovered by a water supply improvement construction project. The cemetery had become obliterated from the surface and from the memories of the people resulting in the use of the land for residential purposes. Twelve skeletons were excavated along the water supply trench and have since been buried at one of the new village cemeteries. There were eight males, two females and two individuals of unknown sex. They were young adults ranging in age from 18 to 35 years at the time of death. Dental modifications were used to estimate the cultural identities of two individuals. Some of the remains had been buried with body clothing such as belts and necklaces. Poor dental health was most probably associated with poor nutrition and poor oral hygiene among the population. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

AN ANGLO-SAXON EXECUTION CEMETERY AT WALKINGTON WOLD, YORKSHIRE

Summary.   This paper presents a re-evaluation of a cemetery excavated over 30 years ago at Walkington Wold in east Yorkshire. The cemetery is characterized by careless burial on diverse alignments, and by the fact that most of the skeletons did not have associated crania. The cemetery has been variously described as being the result of an early post-Roman massacre, as providing evidence for a 'Celtic' head cult or as an Anglo-Saxon execution cemetery. In order to resolve the matter, radiocarbon dates were acquired and a re-examination of the skeletal remains was undertaken. It was confirmed that the cemetery was an Anglo-Saxon execution cemetery, the only known example from northern England, and the site is set into its wider context in the paper.     

Hyperostosis Frontalis Interna and sex identification of two skeletons from the Early Middle Ages necropolis of Vicenne‐Campochiaro (Molise,Italy)

Lesions attributable to Hyperostosis Frontalis Interna (HFI) were examined in two skulls (from graves 100 and 113) from the Early Middle Ages necropolis of Vicenne‐Campochiaro (Molise, Italy). Both skeletons were of older individuals and it was difficult to sex them using standard anthropological methods. We discuss the sex identification of the skeletons in relation to the presence of HFI, as well as the usefulness of this pathological condition as a sex marker, underlining the importance of the relationship between palaeopathological and clinical‐forensic studies. Our study is a further contribution to the case history of HFI in osteoarchaeological material. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Age Patterns of Mortality During the Black Death in London, A.D. 1349-1350

This paper examines adult age-specific mortality patterns of one of the most devastating epidemics in recorded history, the Black Death of A.D. 1347-351. The goal was to determine whether the epidemic affected all ages equally or if it targeted certain age groups. Analyses were done using a sample of 337 individuals excavated from the East Smithfield cemetery in London, which contains only individuals who died during the Black Death in London in 1349-1350. The age patterns from East Smithfield were compared to a sample of 207 individuals who died from non-epidemic causes of mortality. Ages were estimated using the method of transition analysis, and age-specific mortality was evaluated using a hazards model. The results indicate that the risk of mortality during the Black Death increased with adult age, and therefore that age had an effect on risk of death during the epidemic. The age patterns in the Black Death cemetery were similar to those from the non-epidemic mortality sample. The results from this study are consistent with previous findings suggesting that despite the devastating nature of the Black Death, the 14(th)-century disease had general patterns of selectivity that were similar to those associated with normal medieval mortality.     

Roman Period fetal skeletons from the East Cemetery (Kellis 2) of Kellis,Egypt

Much can be learned about the religious ideology and mortuary patterns as well as the demographic and health profiles of a population from archaeological human fetal skeletons. Fetal skeletons are rare, however, largely due to poor preservation and recovery, misidentification, or non‐inclusion in general burial populations. We present an analysis of 82 fetal/perinatal skeletons recovered from Kellis 2, a Roman Period cemetery dated to the third and fourth centuries AD, located in the Dakhleh Oasis, Egypt. Most of the fetal remains were individually wrapped in linen and all were buried among the general cemetery population in a supine, east–west orientation with the head facing to the west. Gestational age estimates are calculated from diaphysis lengths using published regression and Bayesian methods. The overall similarity between the fetal age distributions calculated from the regression and Bayesian methods suggests that the correlation between diaphysis length and gestational age is typically strong enough to avoid the ‘regression’ problem of having the age structure of reference samples adversely affecting the age distribution of target samples. The inherent bias of the regression methods, however, is primarily reflected in the gestational age categories between 36 and 42 weeks corresponding with the expected increase in growth variation during the late third trimester. The results suggest that the fetal age distribution at Kellis 2 does not differ from the natural expected mortality distribution. Therefore, practices such as infanticide can be ruled out as having a significant effect on the observed mortality distribution. Moreover, the Kellis 2 sample is well represented in each gestational age category, suggesting that all premature stillbirths and neonatal deaths received similar burial rites. The age distribution of the Kellis 2 fetal remains suggests that emerging Christian concepts, such as the ‘soul’ and the ‘afterlife’, were being applied to everyone including fetuses of all gestational ages. Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Stable isotope analysis of a medieval skeletal sample indicative of systemic disease from Sigtuna Sweden

In Sigtuna, Sweden, several medieval cemeteries have been excavated, from which approximately 800 skeletons have been excavated and analysed. Archaeological finds and anthropological analyses have exposed social differences between the cemeteries. Stable isotope analyses have shown that the inhabitants of the town consumed a mixed diet. Significant differences in dietary patterns between the cemeteries may be related to social stratification.In the outskirts of a churchyard excavated in 2006, bone changes showing systemic inflammatory disease indicative of leprosy were observed in six individuals. The burial location suggests that the affected belonged to a lower social stratum. Bone samples were taken from these six individuals, 19 other human skeletons and five animals from the same cemetery for analysis of the stable isotope composition of carbon (C), nitrogen (N) and sulphur (S).The results showed no significant differences in δ¹³C and δ¹⁵N values between the groups, i.e. the seemingly healthy humans and the humans affected by severe inflammatory disease appear to have had similar diets. Nor was a significant difference observed in δ³⁴S data between the six affected individuals and the rest of the sample, implying that no difference in origins could be observed between the two groups studied. However, a comparison between the present study and the previous analysis resulted in significant differences in carbon values.Based on the results obtained in this investigation it is suggested that if a dietary difference existed between people in the outskirts of a cemetery (for example those suffering from leprosy) and people buried in higher ranked regions, it was not a difference in food source but rather in other parameters. Instead dietary differences and possibly social variations are demonstrated between cemeteries. The results from the present study highlight the hierarchical arrangements of social classes in the early medieval society.     

Limits to interpretation of skeletal trauma — Two case studies from Medieval Abingdon,England

Two adult male skeletons from the Medieval lay cemetery at Abingdon show multiple trauma to the upper limbs and torso. Although this in itself is not uncommon in this cemetery the two skeletons in question stand out by virtue of the near-identical distribution of their injuries. The skeletons are used as examples to discuss the difficulties facing the palaeopathologist in deciding whether to attribute particular examples of trauma to violence. This is particularly relevant to Abingdon, where at least one major episode of civil conflict is documented historically. It was concluded that although the number of skeletons displaying signs of trauma may show the level of violence and high-risk occupations in a society, skeletal evidence rarely can distinguish between the two in individual cases.     

Warfare and mortality at Koger's Island,Alabama

Koger's Island, a late prehistoric agricultural community in the southeastern USA, is the site of a cemetery containing four mass graves of individuals with perimortem trauma and scalping cutmarks. Although the site as a whole has a demographic profile typical for a society of this kind (with high infant mortality), the mass graves contain relatively few infants or children, and an abundance of adult males. It is suggested that the skeletons found in the multiple burials represent the victims of raiding or warfare. The disproportionate number of males in the mass graves may be related to the fact that relatively few males at the site are older than 50 years, presumably because they are dying at an early age from violence.     

BONES, BODIES, and DIS-EASE

Summary: This paper considers the present state of cemetery studies in the north-western provinces of the Roman Empire. Different aspects of the study are identified and a combination of these is put forward as the requirement for a perfect cemetery report, against which some recent publications are judged. the greatest failure is found to be the provision and assimilation of a bone report, whether anthropological or palaeo-pathological. the potential of complete cemetery reports is stressed.     

Skeletal Material from the Cemetery of the 19th Century Copenhagen Hospital for the Poor: Autopsies,Surgical Training and Anatomical Specimens

The skeletal material of 299 individual skeletons was recovered from 78 graves in central Copenhagen in 2006. The graves were part of a temporary cemetery serving the Copenhagen Hospital for the Poor in the period 1842–1858. It is known that the hospital supplied cadavers for teaching and dissection. Fifty‐two skeletons and bones were found to have cut marks and saw marks, indicative of post mortem surgical interventions: dissection, autopsy, anatomical specimens and surgical practice. The material was closely examined for healing at the sawn edges and signs of diseases. It was attempted to differentiate the surgical procedures from one another and give an overview of the material and historical context. We were mostly unable to attach a specific post mortem surgical procedure to the skeletal elements; however, we present some cases that most likely represent a specific surgical intervention. An excavation of similarly processed bone material from London Hospital from the same time period was used as the main reference material. The skeletal material described here offers a view upon the medical development, teaching and training amongst surgeons and anatomists in mid‐19th century. Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Identification of the Archaeological ‘Invisible Elderly’: An Approach Illustrated with an Anglo‐Saxon Example

The aim of this paper is to present a method to facilitate age‐at‐death estimation of older individuals (generally those aged 50+ years) in a representative cemetery sample. The purpose of disaggregating catch‐all categories, such as 50+ years, is to enable the exploration of the elderly (those in their 50s, 60s, 70s or 80s) in the context of mortuary archaeology, bioarchaeology and/or palaeopathology. The methodological steps include the following: (1) assessment of occlusal tooth wear in an Anglo‐Saxon cemetery sample from Worthy Park, UK; (2) seriation of the sample, from youngest to oldest, based on the degree of tooth wear; (3) selection of an ethnographically derived model (known mortality profile) by which seriated individuals in the Worthy Park sample could be reallocated to more realistic or appropriate age classes; (4) reallocation of individuals in the seriated Worthy Park sample to the model age classes. A Hadza, Tanzania, hunter‐gatherer profile was chosen to model the Worthy Park sample, although others are available. By using this model, some 66% of the entire adult sample, originally allocated to the single final age category of 45+ years, was distributed across four new age categories from the mid‐40s to mid‐70s. Relatively straightforward, this approach provides a way to identify those individuals, 50+ years old, not normally sensitive to traditional age‐at‐death estimation methodologies currently available. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Notices of Certain Bronze Relics,of a Peculiar Type Assigned to the Late Celtic Period

The excavation of four hundred complete and partial in situ burials from the Hospital of St. John the Evangelist, Cambridge, represented one of the largest medieval hospital osteoarchaeological assemblages from the British Isles. The significance of the group is enhanced by the detailed investigation of a carefully maintained network of pathways associated with the cemetery, the archaeological sequence that pre- and post-dated its use and a number of contemporary properties that were situated immediately outside its bounds. This evidence allows the cemetery to be placed within its urban context in a way that is rarely possible. The overwhelming majority of the burials were extended west-east aligned supine inhumations without grave-goods. Atypical burials included examples aligned east-west and south-north, a double burial, a prone burial and individuals buried with a jet crucifix and a brooch. Other significant finds included a nearby pit with four bodies in it, an anthropomorphic bone handle and a reused cruciform horse harness pendant. The proportion of males and females in the burial population is similar, whilst individuals who died under the age of sixteen are relatively uncommon and individuals aged under five are completely absent.     

Black Death in the rural cemetery of Saint-Laurent-de-la-Cabrerisse Aude-Languedoc,southern France, 14th century: immunological evidence

An excavation carried out in 2007 in Saint-Laurent-de-la-Cabrerisse (Aude-Languedoc, southern France), revealed a medieval rural cemetery used during the 8th–14th centuries. One hundred and forty nine graves were identified. Amongst those, three burials radiocarbon dated to the 14th century contained the remains of several individuals. No paleotraumatological evidences of violence due to warfare or to a civil massacre were identified in the exhumed skeletons. Therefore, we hypothesized that the simultaneous inhumations could have occurred during the “Black Death” outbreak or during one of its resurgences. A rapid diagnostic test for the detection of Yersinia pestis F1 antigen was applied to the nine putative plague victims to authenticate the cause of their death. Seven of the nine individuals tested from the three graves were positive to Y. pestis F1 antigen. We additionally tested fourteen skeletons from single graves archaeologically dated to the 13th–14th centuries. Four of them were positive to Y. pestis F1 antigen, thus showing a higher mortality rate due to plague than originally expected. The Saint-Laurent-de-la-Cabrerisse plague victims are the oldest samples from which Y. pestis F1 antigen has been, hitherto, identified. Few rural French cemetery containing plague victims have previously been identified and amongst them, only one dates to the 14th century. In the present report, we provide suggestive evidence of a second rural cemetery from southern France where victims of Y. pestis infection were buried. Our findings provide new information about the management of the plagued corpses during the “Black Death” in small rural communities.