The Relationship Between Linear Enamel Hypoplasia and Social Status in 18th to 19th Century Edo,Japan

Linear enamel hypoplasia (LEH) has been utilised in human bioarchaeology as an indicator of growth disturbance during childhood. However, only a few studies have compared populations of different socio‐economic status in the same time period. This study examines the association between the LEH occurrence pattern and social status in the 18th to 19th century populations in Japan. Detailed archaeological studies on burials from the Edo period (1603–1867) excavated in Tokyo have facilitated estimating an individual's social status by its burial type. In this study, 112 individuals from the Sugenji‐Shokenji site were divided into three burial structure groups (ceramic jar coffins for middle‐class warriors, wooden square coffins for low‐class warriors and townspeople and wooden circular coffins for townspeople) and examined for the general prevalence of LEH, number of LEH and the chronological distribution of LEH. A high general prevalence of LEH was observed in every group, especially in lower canine (79.3–100.0%). However, individuals in the jar coffin group showed a lower prevalence and smaller number of LEH per tooth, suggesting that individuals of higher social status experienced better living environments in their childhood. There was no significant difference in the chronological distribution of LEH formation between coffin groups. Such data are essential for understanding the association between socio‐economic status and living conditions in specific societies in the past. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Visualization of lidar-derived relief models for detection of archaeological features

This paper presents visualisation techniques of high-resolution digital elevation models (DEMs) for visual detection of archaeological features. The methods commonly used in archaeology are reviewed and improvements are suggested. One straightforward technique that has so far not been used in archaeology – the shift method – is presented. The main purpose of this article is to compare and evaluate different visualisation methods. Two conclusions have been reached. Where a single method must be chosen – for printing or producing digital images for non-professionals – the use of sky view factor or slope gradient is endorsed, both presented in greyscale. Otherwise interpreters should choose different techniques on different terrain types: shift on flat terrain, sky view factor on mixed terrain, slope gradient on sloped terrain and sky view factor (preferably as a composite image with slope gradient) on rugged terrain.     

Childhood trauma in several populations from the Iberian Peninsula

A study was conducted on a collection of 123 juvenile skeletons from various sites dating to the Bronze Age (Argar culture) and from the medieval cemeteries of La Torrecilla, Villanueva de Soportilla and San Baudelio, all in the Iberian Peninsula. No cranial trauma was observed. However, four postcranial fractures were found, including three from Castellón Alto, a typical Argaric village of some urban complexity built on steep terraces in high and rugged terrain. The combination of a hazardous environment and a climate that encourages outdoor play may explain the relatively high frequency of childhood trauma in the burials from the Argar culture. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Mandibular hypodontia and osteoarthritis in prehistoric bighorn sheep (Ovis canadensis) in eastern Washington State,USA

Mandibular hypodontia of the p2 was found to occur in 3 out of 21 individual prehistoric Rocky Mountain bighorn sheep (Ovis canadensis canadensis) from Moses Coulee Cave in eastern Washington State, similar to its frequency of occurrence in modern bighorn. There is no evidence of lumpy jaw (mandibular osteomyelitis) in the Moses Coulee Cave collection. Evidence from Moses Coulee Cave aligns with the hypothesis that low frequencies of hypodontia and lumpy jaw occur in healthy, evolutionarily old (maintenance) populations in order to maintain the occlusal area and thus maximise efficiency of food procurement and processing. Osteoarthritis was found to occur in 1 out of 70 individual Rocky Mountain bighorn sheep (Ovis canadensis canadensis) astragali in the Moses Coulee Cave collection. This prevalence is unsurprising given a population dominated by prime‐age individuals. Osteoarthritis was likely selected against given that individuals must be agile to effectively use rugged terrain to escape predation and as a general measure suggests a healthy population. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Snow-tracking and GIS: using multiple species-environment models to determine optimal wildlife crossing sites and evaluate highway mitigation plans on the Trans-Canada Highway

Snow-tracking data were collected for cougars (  Felis concolor ), lynx (  Lynx canadensis ), martens ( Martes americana ) and wolves ( Canis lupus ) and combined with remotely sensed imagery in a geographic information system (GIS) to identify wildlife crossing sites on the Trans-Canada Highway in Banff National Park, Alberta. We used logistic regression to assess the dependent (species presence/absence) relative to measures of topography and vegetation. The exponent form of each logistic regression equation was used to predict crossing sites in a GIS, which were then contrasted with mitigation sites proposed by Parks Canada. We found that: (1) cougars were influenced positively by normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI); negatively by northness and distance to ruggedness, (2) lynx were influenced positively by wetness, greenness, rugged terrain, eastness and distance to rugged terrain; negatively by slope, (3) martens were related positively to wetness, elevation, eastness, and distance to rugged terrain; negatively to northness, (4) wolves were influenced positively by distance to ruggedness; negatively by brightness, elevation, eastness and terrain ruggedness. There were few sympatric crossing sites for all species, supporting the use of species-specific mitigation or wide structures that capture multiple species needs. Inconsistencies were observed between the crossing sites predicted in this study and the Parks Canada proposal. The usefulness of GIS and track data to enhance mitigation projects is illustrated.     

Non‐specific indicators of stress and their association with age at death in Medieval York: Using stature and vertebral neural canal size to examine the effects of stress occurring during different periods of development

Selective mortality can occur towards individuals who survive episodes of physiological stress, such as disease and malnutrition, during development. The skeletal elements affected depend on the timing of these stressful episodes. Studying multiple non‐specific indicators of stress can show which periods of development were affected and whether certain periods can be linked with selective mortality. To examine this method a preliminary study of 61 adult individuals from the Medieval population of Fishergate House, York was undertaken to examine small vertebral neural canal size and reduced adult stature. Previous studies have shown that selective mortality occurs towards individuals who display these non‐specific indicators of stress. Statistical analysis showed that small transverse neural canal diameter was significantly associated with early adult mortality for males and females and there was evidence of selective mortality towards females with reduced stature. This suggests that individuals who died in early adulthood experienced health insults during late childhood which stunted VNC growth but males in particular were not significantly affected by health insults after this age as they achieved a normal adult stature. Therefore it appears that health insults which occurred during late childhood had a greater influence on adult health in the Fishergate House population. This method could be expanded to provide more detailed information by using a greater variety of non‐specific indicators of stress which will allow more specific periods of development to be investigated. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Porotic hyperostosis in a Late Upper Palaeolithic skeleton (Villabruna 1, Italy)

Porotic hyperostosis (PH) is a well‐recognised skeletal indicator of physiological stress occurring during the early years of childhood growth. Although frequently found starting from the Neolithic, PH is poorly documented among earlier Palaeolithic hunter–gatherers. This study reports a case of PH in a Late Upper Palaeolithic skeleton (Villabruna 1) from northern Italy. Macroscopic and radiographic examinations of the skeleton show symmetric porotic lesions of the cranial vault, hair‐on‐end appearance, thinning of the cortical bone, diploic expansion and very slight cribra orbitalia (CO). All lesions are highly remodelled and suggest a condition suffered long before death. A differential diagnosis, carried out in order to discriminate between infectious and acquired conditions, points to anaemia as likely aetiology for the changes observed. Absence of postcranial involvement, lesion healing and survival to adulthood suggest a diagnosis of acquired anaemia. Among acquired anaemias, both dietary and infectious models are discussed in light of the individual's skeletal characteristics, as well as geographic location, paleoenvironmental data, subsistence modality and dietary information. The combined analysis of these data suggests that parasitic infestation resulted in megaloblastic anaemia in this individual. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Toddlers in Transition: Linear Enamel Hypoplasias in the Hadza of Tanzania

Bioarchaeologists often use linear enamel hypoplasias (LEH) as a proxy for systemic physiological stress in prehistoric populations. Increased incidences of LEH have been observed in many cases associated with rapid social or environmental changes, such as with the Neolithic transition and agricultural intensification. Still, there have yet to be studies published of LEH incidence among living peoples in the process of transitioning from foraging to a farming economy. It is important to document LEH occurrence in living groups with known subsistence strategies to better contextualise interpretations of bioarchaeological populations. Here, we present LEH data for a sample of the Hadza of Tanzania. We compare LEH incidence and frequency on the permanent anterior teeth of individuals who spent their infancy and early childhood (i) in the bush consuming wild foods; (ii) in the village with a weaning diet dominated by domestic cereals; and (iii) transitory, dividing their time between the bush and village. Our results demonstrate that Hadza living in the bush during the period of tooth formation less frequently have LEH on these teeth, and have fewer of them on average, than do villagers. This is particularly so for the comparison of men. The transient group is intermediate in LEH incidence, although not significantly different from the bush and village samples. A lower LEH frequency in the bush Hadza is consistent with a diet that meets nutrient requirements of tooth formation, but higher incidence in the village sample suggests interruption of enamel secretion, most likely due to malnutrition. Such studies provide valuable context with which to interpret and understand bioarchaeological evidence, and to track effects of sedentisation on the biology of modern foragers. Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Linear Enamel Hypoplasia and Age‐at‐Death at Medieval (11th–16th Centuries) St. Gregory's Priory and Cemetery,Canterbury, UK

Linear enamel hypoplasia (LEH) is a macroscopically detectable band‐like dental defect, which represents localized decrease in enamel thickness caused by some form of disruption to a child's health. Such dental deformations are utilized in osteoarchaeological research as permanent markers of childhood physiological stress and have been extensively studied in numerous ancient human populations. However, currently there is no such data for medieval populations from Canterbury, UK. Here, LEH is examined in the context of age‐at‐death in human burials from the medieval St. Gregory's Priory and adjacent cemetery (11^th–16^th centuries), Canterbury, UK. The cemetery and Priory burials represented lower (n = 30) and higher status (n = 19) social groups, respectively. Linear enamel hypoplastic defects were counted on mandibular and maxillary anterior permanent teeth (n = 374). The age and sex of each skeleton were estimated using standard methods. Differences in LEH counts, age‐at‐death, and LEH formation ages were sought between the two social groups. Results indicate significantly greater frequencies of LEH in the Cemetery (mean = 17.6) compared to the Priory (mean = 7.9; t = −3.03, df = 46, p = 0.002). Adult age‐at‐death was also significantly lower in the Cemetery (mean = 39.8 years) compared to the Priory burials (mean = 44.1 years; t = 2.275, df = 47, p = 0.013). Hypoplasia formation ages differed significantly between the Priory (mean = 2.49 years) and Cemetery (mean = 3.22 years; t = 2.076; df = 47; p = 0.034) individuals. Results indicate that childhood stress may reflect adult mortality in this sample, and that the wellbeing of individuals from diverse social backgrounds can be successfully assessed using LEH analyses. Results are discussed in terms of the multifactorial etiology of LEH, as well as weaning‐related LEH formation. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Identification of limits and barriers to climate change adaptation: case study of two islands in Torres Strait,Australia

Communities living on remote islands are often viewed as among the most exposed and vulnerable to climate change impacts. This study uses the Sustainable Livelihoods Framework to investigate how indigenous communities living on two physically different islands in Torres Strait, Australia, experience what they consider to be the impacts of climate change in relation to their daily lives. During this process, a series of natural, physical, and socio‐cultural limits and barriers to climate change adaptation were identified on Boigu, a low‐lying mud island inundated by the sea during high tides and storm surges. As a volcanic island, Erub's elevation is higher but significant community infrastructure, housing, and cultural sites are located on the low coastal fringe. No immediate limits to climate change adaptation were identified on Erub, but physical and socio‐cultural barriers were revealed. Limits to climate change adaptation occur when adaptation actions fail to protect the things valued by those affected, or few adaptation options are available. Barriers to climate change adaptation may be overcome if recognised and addressed but can become entrenched limits if they are ignored. Within the participating communities, such limits and barriers included (a) restricted adaptation options due to limited access to particular livelihood assets; (b) difficulty engaging with government processes to secure external support; and (c) people's place‐based values, which evoke a reluctance to relocate or retreat.     

Investigating DEM Error Patterns by Directional Variograms and Fourier Analysis

In many spatial analyses and GIS applications, a Digital Elevation Model (DEM) is often used to derive a variety of new variables and parameters. Previous research shows that the accuracy of derived variables is affected, not merely by the magnitude of DEM errors and the algorithms applied to derive these variables, but also by the spatial structure of DEM errors. However, the lack of knowledge and understanding of the spatial structure of DEM errors often handicaps the analysis of error propagation. This paper investigates the spatial autocorrelation and anisotropic pattern of DEM error by using directional variograms in the spatial domain and Fourier analysis in the frequency domain. Based on an empirical study, it is concluded that the spatial autocorrelation pattern of DEM errors is anisotropic and scale-dependent, and that the maximum direction and range of the autocorrelation depends upon the orientation and wavelength of the terrain features. For a smooth terrain, the magnitude of DEM errors is correlated to surface slope. For a rugged terrain, the elevation values in DEMs tend to be underestimated in ridges, and overestimated in valleys, but the correlation between the DEM error and surface slope is quite low.     

The Occurrence and Possible Aetiology of Spondylolysis in a Pre‐contact California Population

The occurrence of spondylolysis (neural arch separation at the pars interarticularis) is reported in a pre‐contact (720–550 Cal BP) Central California population, CA‐CCo‐647 (n = 46). Spondylolysis was examined within this population to assess differences in sex, age, and possible relationships with biological affinity. Furthermore, prevalence rates of spondylolysis were compared across various populations to discern the aetiology of the defect. Within CA‐CCo‐647, spondylolysis was found in 17.4% (8/46) of the population. All occurrences are complete, bilateral separations of the neural arch in the lower lumbar (L4 and L5). The defect is not seen in individuals below the age of 18, and there is no correlation between adult age and spondylolysis. Male individuals display the defect at a higher rate (30.8% ‐ 4/13) than female individuals (12.1% ‐ 4/33); however, this is not a statistically significant finding. There does seem to be a correlation between an individual's sex and the onset of the defect; male individuals display spondylolysis at a younger age than female individuals. This finding could represent differences in activity patterns among young male and female individuals. In a biological distance analysis using craniometric data, male and female individuals with spondylolysis clustered closely, suggesting a genetic component for the defect. Finally, significant differences were found in spondylolysis prevalence between various populations representing distinct geographic and temporal settings. Significant differences were found among Native pre‐contact samples and even between two comparable pre‐contact California skeletal samples. These populations all engaged in distinct activities and were likely composed of genetically distinct groups of individuals, which may account for the differences in spondylolysis prevalence. All of these findings, both within CA‐CCo‐647 and between the various samples, suggest that the aetiology of spondylolysis is likely an interaction of genes and activity. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Chinese Indentured Mine Labour and the Dangers Associated with Early 20th Century Deep‐level Mining on the Witwatersrand Gold Mines,South Africa

Trauma analysis in archaeological human remains can aid our understanding of cultural practices, socio‐economic status, environmental and social conditions, and even aspects of a person's occupation. For this reason, fracture patterns and frequencies can be useful in making inferences about the environment people lived and worked in. This is especially true for the 20th century mining industry where unskilled migrant labourers were often subjected to harsh working and living conditions. In this study, the skeletal remains of 36 Chinese indentured mine labourers, who worked and died on the Witwatersrand mines, South Africa, during the period ad 1904–1910, were assessed for evidence of trauma. Historical information suggests that these indentured Chinese labourers were unfamiliar with the workings of deep‐level mines and as a result sustained many work‐related injuries. Analyses suggest low frequencies of ante‐mortem trauma. In the few instances where they occurred, these healed fractures most probably reflect injuries already sustained in China, some time before Chinese indentured employment on the Witwatersrand mines. A high frequency of traumatic lesions, specifically peri‐mortem fractures, however, suggests a drastic shift in their working environment attesting to the hazardous working conditions associated with deep‐level mining in the early 20th century. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Description,significance and frequency of the acetabular crease of the hip bone

The acetabular crease is a linear indentation located in the antero‐superior quadrant of the surface of the acetabulum at the level of the Byers Feature 17. Considered by palaeoanthropologists as a discrete trait, it has received scarce attention and the mechanisms underlying its formation and variations according to sex and age remain largely unclear. The purpose of this study, carried out on a large sample from a historic population in France, was to (i) analyse variations according to side, sex and estimated age at death; (ii) assess diachronic variations; and (iii) compare prevalence in various prehistoric and historic populations. Hip bones from a total of 425 subjects of both sexes and all ages were studied. Specimens were from two French historic samples dating from the 11th to 13th centuries and 16th to 17th centuries. The proportion of subjects that died young was higher in the 11th to 13th century group, but the prevalence of the acetabular crease was comparable between the two groups regardless of site or laterality (unilateral or bilateral). No sexual dimorphism or correlation with age was noted at either period. The acetabular crease appears to be a stable anatomical trait throughout adult life, with no predominant side and no correlation with sex. The significantly higher prevalence of the acetabular crease in some historic French samples and in prehistoric native Canadian populations could be linked to greater biomechanical stress during childhood in rural medieval populations and in the prehistoric period. Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Localised Primary Canine Hypoplasia: Implications for Maternal and Infant Health at Man Bac,Vietnam, 4000–3500 years BP

The aim of this paper is to assess the frequency of localised primary canine hypoplasia (LHPC) in a sample of 24 subadults from a Neolithic cemetery assemblage located at Man Bac, northern Vietnam (~4000–3500 years BP), and explore the range of factors potentially contributing to the development of this condition. It is found that 41.7% of individuals (20.9% of primary canines) have LHPC, which is similar to the frequency reported in a suite of ancient cemetery series from Neolithic through to Metal Age Thailand. A range of competing aetiological factors considered included trauma to the deciduous canine, ostensibly by way of early childhood exploratory behaviours (e.g. ‘mouthing’ objects), nutritional and dietary deficiencies (especially vitamin A and D), the impact of the mother's health on the developing foetus as well as the effects of premature birth on the developing child. It is concluded that while the aetiology LHPC is multi‐factorial, the reasonably high prevalence of this condition at Man Bac suggests depressed maternal and neonatal health, consistent with a community experiencing high rates of fertility and transitioning to an agricultural subsistence economy. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Bone remodelling following a lower leg fracture in the 11,000‐year‐old hunter‐gatherer from Vado all' Arancio (Italy)

The Upper Palaeolithic skeleton from Vado all'Arancio (Italy), dated to about 11,330 BP, exhibits a severe ankle fracture healed with residual deformation. Following recovery, this young hunter‐gatherer continued to walk for an extended period of time, albeit in a mechanically altered manner. While right‐left differences in external lower limb bone measurements are relatively low, biomechanical analysis of femur and tibia indicates unusually pronounced asymmetry in all cross‐sectional measures of diaphyseal strength. Asymmetry results primarily from normal side endosteal hypertrophy, and not from hypotrophy of the injured limb, suggesting that this individual resumed active life following recovery. This pattern of asymmetry underscores the role of physical activity in maintaining bone mass. Copyright © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Activity Reconstruction of Post‐Medieval Dutch Rural Villagers from Upper Limb Osteoarthritis and Entheseal Changes

The first objective of this study is to reconstruct levels and types of physical activity and associated sexual and social differences using human skeletal remains from the predominately 19th century Dutch cemetery of Middenbeemster. For most individuals, life in the Beemster centred around dairy farming and was heavily based on manual labor, with a purported higher class of wealthier individuals performing less manual labor. Two skeletal markers of activity are examined in the upper limb of late young adult and middle‐aged adults of both sexes (26–49 years, n = 69): osteoarthritis (OA) and entheseal changes (EC). Results support the hypothesis that the majority of the population engaged in high levels of physical activity; however, a group with a clearly lower or different pattern of activity, possibly representing a higher, less active class, was not discernible. This may be due to a low number of less active individuals in the analysed sample and/or the heterogeneity of occupations and activities. A gendered division of labour was evident in the EC data with males having more pronounced muscle attachments in almost all sites, especially the biceps brachii, used primarily in lifting. Females had more pronounced triceps brachii, which may be due to activities that required pushing or pulling with the elbow in a flexed position. The prevalence and severity of OA did not differ between the sexes. While this could be interpreted to indicate men and women engaged in a similar level of strenuous activity, hormonal and anatomical differences limit the strength of the comparison. The second objective of this study is to evaluate the concordance of OA and EC as activity markers. The correlation between OA and EC is very low, illustrating their variable and complex etiologies. Etiological factors need further research for OA and EC to become more reliable activity markers. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Massive dolomitization of a Messinian reef in the Great Bahama Bank: a numerical modelling evaluation of Kohout geothermal convection

The hypothesis that Kohout thermal convection may have induced the massive dolomitization of the 60 m thick lowest more reefal unit in well Unda [top of Great Bahama Bank (GBB)] is evaluated through numerical modelling. A two‐dimensional (2‐D) section, including lithological and petrophysical data, together with datings for the sediments of the GBB, was used in the basin model TEMISPACK to reconstruct the history of the whole platform, with a focus on the reef unit. Simulations showed that during high sea‐level periods, Kohout convection is a valid mechanism in the settings of the GBB, although the convection cell remains flat in most cases because of high permeability anisotropy. This mechanism induces rapid fluid flow in the superficial as well as in the deeper parts of the platform, with velocities of at least two orders of magnitude higher than with compaction alone. Lithology appears as a strong control of fluid circulations at the margin scale through the permeability anisotropy, for which a critical value lies between values of 10 and 100. The reefal unit in Unda is part of a larger area determined by the lithologic distribution, in which flow velocities are significantly higher than in the rest of the platform. These velocities are high enough to bring the magnesium necessary to precipitate the observed amounts of dolomite, within durations in agreement with the available time of post‐reef deposition high sea level(s). However, neither fluid flow pattern nor flow velocities are able to explain the preferential massive dolomitization of the lower reef unit and the complete absence of dolomite in the upper one.     

The Cost of a Commute: A Multidisciplinary Approach to Osteoarthritis in New Kingdom Egypt

This article evaluates rates of osteoarthritis of the lower limb in human remains from Deir el‐Medina in order to compare the health of the residents of Deir el‐Medina with previous studies on other ancient Egyptian and Nubian populations. This study focuses on osteological observations from the commingled New Kingdom human remains documented during the 2012–2014 field seasons of the Institut Français d'Archéologie Orientale. This is the first publication of osteoarthritis for the human remains at Deir el‐Medina, a dataset which complements comparable populations at sites such as Amarna, Giza, and Tombos. It demonstrates that men in the village of Deir el‐Medina experienced significantly higher rates of osteoarthritis in the ankle and knee in comparison to women at Deir el‐Medina. Rates of osteoarthritis in the lower limb at Deir el‐Medina generally fall between workers' cemeteries and middle‐class or elite cemeteries. This study also includes data from Deir el‐Medina's detailed textual record and intact landscape in order to determine how occupation influenced these higher rates of osteoarthritis. The duration, intensity, and frequency of the workmen's hikes are reconstructed based on the surrounding landscape and 42 texts recording work days. This study compares rates of osteoarthritis with these datasets in order to document how the strain, duration, and frequency of the workmen's hikes may have impacted overall rates of osteoarthritis. Consequently, data from the texts and landscape surrounding Deir el‐Medina not only corroborate osteoarthritis patterns, but offer detailed daily life activity which can be used as a comparison for broader studies on osteoarthritis in ancient and modern populations. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Skeletal Evidence for Otitis Media in Mediaeval and Post‐Mediaeval Children from Poland,Central Europe

In palaeopathological research, otitis media (OM) is a rarely reported disease, although it is one of the most common diseases of childhood, with potentially severe consequences resulting in physical and social impairment, or even death. The episodes of OM are often preceded by upper respiratory tract infections, though the aetiology of OM is multifactorial, with significant role of environmental factors. In archaeological skeletons, middle ear inflammation is identified as erosive lesions and new bone formation of auditory ossicles. The aim of this study was to examine the skeletal signs of OM in children from a mediaeval early urban site (Cedynia) and a post‐mediaeval rural site (Słaboszewo) located on the territory of Poland. Among the entire sample (N = 435), ear bones were present in 99 skeletons. The total of 168 ossicles were examined. The general frequency of individuals with eroded ossicles was 47.5% (53.4% in Cedynia and 39.0% in Słaboszewo). In the total sample, 33.9% of ear bones showed pathological changes, with the incudes being most frequently affected. The frequency of altered ossicles was significantly higher in the early urban site than in the rural settlement (42.2% vs 25.9%, respectively; Fisher exact test, p = 0.0339). The children aged 0–3 years old tend to have a higher frequency of altered ear bones than the children aged 4–11 years old. The majority of the mastoid processes of the subadults with ear bone erosion show abnormal pneumatisation pattern. The results indicate that the environmental and socio‐cultural conditions in the stronghold likely made their inhabitants more prone to upper respiratory tract infections than the inhabitants of the village. A variety of factors may be responsible for this pattern, such as exposure to dust, environmental pollution, indoor pollution, wood smoke, occupation, population density, sanitation and quality of housing. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.