The Supply of Glass at Portus Ilicitanus (Alicante,Spain): A Meta‐Analysis of HIMT Glasses

Portus Ilicitanus (Picola, Alicante) was the main sea harbour of the Roman Colonia Iulia Ilici Augusta and as such played a crucial role in the supply of fundamental commodities to the Iberian Peninsula. Excavations yielded large quantities of glass in fourth‐ and early fifth‐century contexts. Elemental analysis of 60 samples by laser ablation – inductively coupled plasma – mass spectrometry (LA–ICP–MS) confirmed that the glasses were imported from the Eastern Mediterranean. A majority of the glasses correspond to the HIMTa primary production group, which originates from Egypt. The statistical evaluation of published data of 589 HIMT glasses further revealed differential distribution patterns of the HIMTa and HIMTb subtypes between the Eastern and Western Mediterranean, suggesting chronological trends that are linked to wider geopolitical changes. This demonstrates the need for systematic large‐scale approaches to identify supply patterns and possible factors underlying geographical differences and/or chronological developments.     

Smelting and recycling evidences from the Late Bronze Age habitat site of Baiões (Viseu,Portugal)

Many aspects of bronze production during Late Bronze Age in Western Europe are so far unknown. In the present study selected artefact fragments and metallurgical debris, which include a slag fragment, from the emblematic Late Bronze Age habitat site of Castro da Senhora da Guia de Baiões (Viseu, Portugal) have been studied by optical microscopy, micro-EDXRF, SEM–EDS and XRD. Evidences were found for bronze production involving smelting and recycling. Compositional analysis showed that the artefacts are made of a bronze with 13 ± 3 wt.% Sn (average and one standard deviation) and a low impurity pattern, namely <0.1 wt.% Pb, being comparable with the composition of other bronzes from the same region (the Central Portuguese Beiras). This alloy is generally different from elsewhere Atlantic and Mediterranean bronzes, which show frequently slightly lower Sn contents and higher impurity patterns, namely Pb which is often present as an alloying element. The present study gives further support to early proposals suggesting the exploration of the Western Iberian tin resources during Late Bronze Age, and besides that, it indicates that metalworking and smelting could have been a commonplace activity requiring no specific facilities, being bronze produced at a domestic scale in this Western extreme of Europe.     

COOKING AND PAINTED WARE FROM SAN GIUSTO (LUCERA,FOGGIA): THE PRODUCTION CYCLE,FROM THE SUPPLY OF RAW MATERIALS TO THE COMMERCIALIZATION OF PRODUCTS*

Archaeological excavation at the San Giusto site (Lucera, Italy) has unearthed a Late Antique kiln that was most certainly dedicated to the production of cooking ware. An archaeometric study of numerous specimens of cooking and painted ware found at this site was carried out using optical microscopy, scanning electron microscopy, micro‐Raman spectroscopy, X‐ray diffraction, X‐ray fluorescence, inductively coupled plasma mass and optical emission spectrometry and instrumental neutron activation analysis. The integration of historical–archaeological data with archaeometric data has revealed that these specimens can be attributed to the San Giusto site. Furthermore, the production cycle of this ware can thus be reconstructed: from the diversified supply of raw materials (fluvial and marine sediments), to the relatively complex preparation of the paste, to firing at variable temperatures (600–750°C for cooking ware; 850–1050°C for painted ware).     

CUERDA SECA CERAMICS FROM AL‐ANDALUS,ISLAMIC SPAIN AND PORTUGAL (10TH−12TH CENTURIES AD): INVESTIGATION WITH SEM–EDX AND CATHODOLUMINESCENCE*

Since little is known about the cuerda seca technique, our aim has been to complete an initial analysis of 11th‐century cuerda seca by studying fragments from the 10th century (Pechina, Almería) and the 12th century (Mértola and Almería), so as to establish the diachronic evolution of this technique. Characteristics specific to cuerda seca ceramic glazes were investigated using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and quantitative chemical analysis with energy‐dispersive X‐ray spectrometry (EDX). The chemical compositions of the different‐coloured glazes (green, black, yellow and white) have given us valuable indications about the evolution of the technique. The opacification mode and the firing process were also investigated. With the help of cathodoluminescence (CL) and the study of modern ‘cuerda seca’ glazed ceramics, new hypotheses regarding the number of firing stages, taking into account glaze and paste transformations and their interactions, are put forward.     

Obsidian from Pulo di Molfetta (Bari,Southern Italy): provenance from Lipari and first recognition of a Neolithic sample from Monte Arci (Sardinia)

Twenty-four obsidian artefacts of the Neolithic Age were found at the large karstic doline of Molfetta (near Bari) along the Southern Italian Adriatic coast. Non-destructive chemical analyses of the glass, by SEM-EDS, allowed their source rock regions to be determined. Twenty-three of the studied artefacts had been traded from the island of Lipari. Only one sample had a glass composition and microphenocrysts (biotite, pyroxene and feldspar) that indicate provenance from the Monte Arci area of Sardinia, in particular from the Perdas Urias (SC) outcrops. The attribution of this artefact to Sardinia enlarges the geographical pattern of Monte Arci obsidian exploitation and distribution from island to Southern Italy during the Middle to Late Neolithic.     

Archaeometric investigation of Roman tesserae from Herculaneum (Italy) by the combined use of complementary micro-destructive analytical techniques

Vitreous tesserae from two mosaics in Herculaneum (Italy) dating from the 1st century AD have been investigated in order to gather information on Imperial Age opaque glass. The combined use of complementary micro-destructive analytical techniques, namely optical microscopy (OM), scanning electron microscopy (SEM) with energy dispersive spectrometry (EDS), inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (ICP-MS), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), and X-ray powder diffraction (XRPD) allowed to define the nature of formers, fluxes, chromophores and opacifying compounds and to determine the type of raw materials employed for their introduction. The results confirmed the high technological level of Imperial Age glassmakers and clarified some details of the production processes. Experimental data have been obtained concerning formation of antimony-based opacifiers. The presence of tin-containing Ca- and Pb-antimonates has been ascertained in various green, yellow and turquoise tesserae. Moreover, unusual divergences from the established Roman age ‘low magnesia–low potash’ (LMLK) glass composition have been found for some red and green samples.     

Preliminary neutron diffraction study of two fenestrated axes from the ‘Enot Shuni' Bronze Age cemetery (Israel)

Neutron diffraction (ND) analyses of ancient metals show that this method is capable of detecting differences in the inner composition and microstructure of ancient metal objects. Here, ND measurements were conducted on two ‘eye shaped’ axes from the end of the 3rd-beginning of the 2nd millennium BC. The objects were excavated from the ancient cemetery of ‘Enot Shuni' Israel; one is made of bronze and the other of silver. Both artefacts are rare finds, with the silver axe unique in the archaeology of Israel, and therefore had to be analysed locally. For that purpose, a newly assembled diffractometer (KARL) at the IRR-1 of the Nuclear Research Centre (Soreq, Israel) was used. ND measurement on the bronze axe revealed the existence of an α-phase with a range of Cu/Sn ratios (Cu–Sn solid solutions) and some amount of a δ-phase (intermetallic compound of Cu and Sn). The silver axe ND pattern shows the existence of an α-phase (Ag–Cu solid solution) and some amount of copper metal. Our ND data are discussed in comparison with XRF surface measurements and thermal neutron radiography. The results are shedding more light on the in-depth material composition profile, as well as on the objects’ structural and compositional affinities, and help to better understand the production processes and assist in conservation decisions.     

Chemical analyses of the earliest pigment residues from the uttermost part of the planet (Beagle Channel region,Tierra del Fuego,Southern South America)

This paper presents the results of chemical analyses of the organic and inorganic fractions of pigment residues found in three archaeological sites located in the Beagle Channel region, Tierra del Fuego, Southern South America. Twenty-one archaeological samples have been analysed through XRD, SEM–EDX, FT-IR and GC–MS in order to characterise their inorganic colouring components and to search for the presence of organic substances used as binders. Lipids found in some samples are considered as potential binders. These organic components are compared to those found in archaeological sediment samples from the same layers where the pigments have been found, in order to search for potential taphonomic contaminations of the latter by the former. Results show that such contaminations are unlikely, hence the lipid contents are deemed of anthropic origin. The pigment sample results are also compared to data from analyses of natural sediment samples collected in several localities of the Beagle Channel in order to search for potential natural pigment sources. Results show that organic and inorganic components of these sediments are not the same than those present in the archaeological pigment samples, hence the pigment raw material sources have not been yet located. All these data provide for the first time evidence of the existence of ancient activities of pigment sourcing and paint preparation with organic binders which range from 6000 BP to 1900 BP in the southernmost region of the planet.     

Lithic production,site formation and Middle Palaeolithic palimpsest analysis: in search of human occupation episodes at Abric del Pastor Stratigraphic Unit IV (Alicante,Spain)

We present the results of an exercise in Middle Palaeolithic palimpsest analysis geared toward the identification of human occupation episodes. It is based on a combined reading of the archaeosedimentary deposit and the archaeological record of Stratigraphic Unit IV from Abric del Pastor (Alcoy, Alicante, Spain), chronologically framed within MIS 4–5. A study of site formation processes coupled with archaeostratigraphic analysis of the lithic record incorporating Raw Material Units (RMU) and refits, as well as with combustion features and faunal remains enabled identification a minimum of 4 and a maximum of 6 human occupation episodes within lithostratigraphic units IVa, IVb and IVc. Through our data it reaches a high resolution temporal frame close to the ethnographic time scale, which constitutes a significant contribution for the knowledge of human occupations types and landscape use in the Mediterranean rim of the Iberian Peninsula during Middle Palaeolithic.     

Source provenance of obsidian artifacts from the Early Stone Age (ESA) site of Melka Konture,Ethiopia

The source provenance of 10 Early Stone Age artifacts from the localities in Melka Konture has been determined by EDXRF. Results show that the early to mid-Pleistocene makers of the artifacts derived the raw material from a source located in their proximity, supporting the previously proposed short distance transport of raw material for the time period.     

Strontium isotope evidence of migration and diet in relation to ritual tooth ablation: a case study from the Inariyama Jomon site,Japan

Ritual tooth ablation was extensively practiced among Jomon (Japanese Neolithic) societies in their final phase (ca. 3000-2300 BP). This tradition includes two different tooth ablation patterns, type 4I and type 2C, referring to extraction of the mandibular incisors and canines, respectively. However, the reason for this difference is unclear. Previous carbon and nitrogen stable isotope analysis of human remains from the Inariyama shell mound revealed that type 4I individuals were more dependent on terrestrial resources and type 2C individuals on marine resources. To test this hypothesis, we performed strontium (Sr) isotope (⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr) analyses on the same skeletal remains and on modern plants around the site. Because Sr isotope ratios of plants differ according to the local geology and seawater has a consistent Sr isotope ratio, the Sr isotope ratios of tooth enamel can reveal both migration and diet. Comparing Sr isotope ratios in plants and seawater with those of tooth enamel, we identified four possible immigrants. Type 4I locals had significantly higher Sr isotope ratios than type 2C locals. The ratios of the type 4I and type 2C locals were close to those of terrestrial plants and seawater, respectively, suggesting that type 4I locals had incorporated much Sr from terrestrial resources and type 2C locals from marine resources. These results support the hypothesis that ritual tooth ablation reflects dietary differences throughout an individual’s life, and they suggest possible occupational differentiation among the Jomon people.     

Integrated geoarchaeological methods for the determination of site activity areas: a study of a Viking Age house in Reykjavik,Iceland

For over a decade, geoarchaeological methods such as multi-element analysis and soil micromorphology have been used to identify and interpret activity areas on archaeological sites. However, these techniques, along with others such as magnetic susceptibility, loss on ignition, and microrefuse, artefact and bone distribution analyses are rarely integrated in the study of a single site, even though they provide very different and potentially complementary data. This paper presents a comparative study of a wide range of geoarchaeological methods that were applied to the floors sediments of a Viking Age house at the site of Aðalstræti 16, in central Reykjavík, Iceland, along with more traditional artefact and bone distribution analyses, and a spatial study of floor layer boundaries and features in the building. In this study, the spatial distributions of artefacts and bones could only be understood in the light of the pH distributions, and on their own they provided limited insight into the use of space in the building. Each of the sediment analyses provided unique and valuable information about possible activity areas, with soil micromorphology proving to have the greatest interpretive power on its own. However, the interpretation potential of the geochemical methods was dramatically enhanced if they were integrated into a multi-method dataset.     

Special alloys from remote frontiers of the Shang Kingdom: scientific study of the Hanzhong bronzes from southwest Shaanxi, China

More than 200 bronze objects found in Hanzhong, southwest Shaanxi Province, China, a frontier region of the Shang Kingdom during the Shang dynasty, have been analysed for their composition and microstructure. Forty-three typologically distinct, and probably culturally indigenous, items have been found to be compositionally distinctive as well. This paper presents analytical results of the two types of local Hanzhong bronzes, namely the sickle-shaped and sceptre-shaped objects. Three special alloys, arsenic bronze, antimonial bronze and copper–nickel–arsenic ternary alloy, are particularly emphasized and discussed. The archaeological context of Hanzhong bronzes and their significance for the archaeometallurgy research of the Shang period are discussed as well.     

The Lower Acheulian site of Ambrona,Soria (Spain): ages derived from a combined ESR/U-series model

The Lower Paleolithic sites of Ambrona and Torralba (Soria, Spain) are often associated with each other because of their proximity although they do not represent the same morphostratigraphic unit. Systematic and extensive excavations were conducted at these sites by an American team during the 1960s and 1980s. Recently (1989–2000), a Spanish team has reactivated the research by initiating a new interdisciplinary project. In the central sector and west of the Ambrona site a stratigraphy has been established with six units from AS1 at the base to AS6 at the surface, corresponding to fluvial–lacustrine deposits in which abundant fauna associated with Acheulian artefacts were found. The most abundant species were elephant, horse, deer and aurochs. Other species like carnivores occur in small numbers only. The lithic assemblage is relatively sparse and consists of a few bifaces, choppers and several flake tools distributed throughout levels AS1 to AS5. The fauna and the lithic industry therefore document human presence at Ambrona during the Middle Pleistocene. In order to verify the presumed antiquity of the Ambrona deposits, horse teeth sampled in levels AS1, AS2 and AS6 were analysed using combined ESR/U-series (US) methods. The samples from the lower levels (AS1 and AS2) underwent a very recent uranium uptake as indicated by the U-series dates, ranging between 5 and 18 ka. In contrast, a more conventional postmortem uranium uptake was observed in the upper level samples (AS6) in the enamel and dentine tissues, while a light U-leaching was observed in the cementum. The combined ESR/U-series dates obtained on these samples suggest a minimum age of approximately 350 ka, contemporaneous of OSI 9 or the end of OSI 11, for the Ambrona site.     

Archaeological and archaeomagnetic dating at a site from the ager Tarraconensis (Tarragona,Spain): El Vila-sec Roman pottery

A very accurate archaeological dating of a Roman site in NE Spain (El Vila-sec) was made based on the typology of pottery artifacts. Three different phases were identified with activity ranging from the mid-1st century BC to the early-3rd century AD. Analyses of bricks from kilns at El Vila-sec produced data on their stored archaeomagnetic vector. These data were compared with the secular variation curve for the Iberian Peninsula and the SCHA.DIF.3K regional archaeomagnetic model. Both, the reference curve and the model, produced probability distributions for the final period of use for two kilns from the second archaeological phase that were not used during the third phase. At a 95% confidence level, both time distributions cover a wide chronological range including the presumed archaeological age. Both the Iberian secular variation curve and the SCHA.DIF.3K regional model proved to be suitable models for dating the site, although on their own they do not produce a single unambiguous solution. This archaeomagnetic approach could also be applied to neighbouring archaeological sites that have an imprecise archaeological age.     

Palaeoenvironmental reconstruction of La Olla,a Holocene archaeological site in the Pampean coast (Argentina)

The evolution of littoral palaeoenvironments in the southern Pampas region of Argentina towards the end of the early Holocene and the beginning of the mid Holocene is discussed, and the formation processes of the archaeological site of La Olla are analysed. This site is located in the intertidal zone of the present beach and is remarkably well-preserved. The human occupation at the site has been dated at between 7400 and 6480 yrs BP, and is interpreted as a place for the processing and consumption of the southern fur seal (Arctocephalus australis) and southern sea-lion (Otaria flavescens). It is concluded that biostabilization by microbial mats of the sedimentary structures and archaeological remains that developed and are present on the tidal flat prevented their erosion by wind, turbulence currents and waves. This is what has permitted the exceptional preservation of the site. On the basis of the analyses of one of the sectors of the site it can be concluded that the sedimentary succession of the La Olla site is the result of the coastal environmental changes during the early–mid Holocene in the pre-maximum transgressive episode. During this interval a tidal flat developed on the Pleistocene abrasion platform. Human occupation occurred during the formation of mixohaline marsh, an upper intertidal–lower supratidal zone ecosystem.     

Massive storage in As Laias/O Castelo (Ourense,NW Spain) from the Late Bronze Age/Iron Age transition to the Roman period: a palaeoethnobotanical approach

The highest platforms of As Laias, a settlement located in northwest Iberia, were used for storage during the Iron Age and until the turn of the Era. In this time-span, the whole hilltop – the croa – was a walled enclosure mostly used for storage and due to recurrent fires affecting the settlement's terraces, abundant plant remains were preserved in overlying wattle and daub storage structures.     

Historical signature of Roman mining activities in the Bidasoa estuary (Basque Country,northern Spain): an integrated micropalaeontological,geochemical and archaeological approach

This work presents an integrated micropalaeontological (foraminiferal content), geochemical (Pb, Zn, Cu, Ni, Cr, and Al, Pb isotope ratios, radiocarbon dating) and archaeological approach to the environmental impact caused by Roman mining in the Bidasoa estuary (northern Spain). Sediments collected in the ancient Roman port of Irun represent a typical infilling sequence, reflecting a progressive isolation from the estuarine environment. They exhibit elevated contents of Pb, clearly higher than those recommended nowadays for acceptable sediment quality. Isotope composition confirms exploitation of local galenas as the main source for this metal. Results from a borehole (25 m long) reveal that Pb pollution extended also to the adjacent estuarine area. The beginning of Roman mining activities is recorded by a marked increase in Pb concentrations. However, the maximum value appears later in time (after 660 cal AD). Although this enrichment could be related to the reworking upstreams of previously polluted materials, recently obtained archaeological data suggest that episodes of historically non-documented mining activities could have taken place in the surrounding area after Roman times.     

Paleodietary analysis of a San Francisco Bay Area shellmound: stable carbon and nitrogen isotope analysis of late Holocene humans from the Ellis Landing site (CA-CCO-295)

The late Holocene archaeofaunal record of the San Francisco Bay Area demonstrates temporal declines in the abundance of low-cost, high-ranked marine and terrestrial resources. During later periods of occupation, faunal assemblages are often dominated by lower-ranked, higher-cost resources, suggesting an increase in diet breadth through time. Archaeological resource intensification models argue that this marks a late Holocene decline in foraging efficiency in the Bay Area, driven by human-induced harvest pressure. This study examines dietary change in the region using stable carbon and nitrogen isotope data from 65 human burials, spanning two temporal components (cal AD 55–890 and cal AD 762–1550) at the Ellis Landing site (CA-CCO-295). The strong linear relationship between collagen carbon and nitrogen isotope values reflects both marine and terrestrial food consumption, with individuals showing a high level of dietary variability at the site. No temporal trend or meaningful sex differences were found in isotope values. The widening of diet breadth predicted by the archaeofaunal record occurred prior to the occupation of the Ellis Landing shellmound site. The trend in exploiting a greater amount of terrestrial resources during the Middle and Late Period in central California was supported by isotopic evidence.     

The hunted hunter: the capture of a lion (Panthera leo fossilis) at the Gran Dolina site,Sierra de Atapuerca,Spain

Many Pleistocene caves and rock shelters contain evidence of carnivore and human activities. For this reason, it is common to recover at these sites faunal remains left by both biological agents. In order to explain the role that carnivores play at the archaeological sites it is necessary to analyse several elements, such as the taxonomical and skeletal representation, the age profiles, the ratio of NISP to MNI, the anthropogenic processing marks on the carcasses (location and purpose of cutmarks and burning and bone breakage patterns), carnivore damage (digested bones, location and frequencies of toothmarks and bone breakage), length of the long bones, frequencies of coprolites and vertical distribution of the faunal remains, inter alia. From this, the documentation of carnivores in a faunal assemblage with a clear anthropogenic component can be understood from three main phenomena: (1) the carnivores as accumulators and the use of the site as a den; (2) carnivores as scavengers of hominid refuse and; (3) carnivores as hominids’ prey. Of these three phenomena, the last one is the least documented at the Middle Pleistocene sites. From this perspective, here we present the case of the anthropogenic use of a lion (Panthera leo fossilis) from level TD10-1 of Gran Dolina (MIS 9, Sierra de Atapuerca, Burgos, Spain). The lion bone remains show signs of direct interaction between this big cat and human groups that occupied Gran Dolina in these chronologies. From this perspective, the aim of this paper is to contribute to the knowledge of the role developed by large carnivores in the anthropogenic contexts and to provide data on human use of these predators at the European Middle Pleistocene sites.