北洋政府时期的将军府及将军名号的封授述论

北洋政府时期,袁世凯为灵活解决全国军官的外放内调,特设将军府,虽明颁《将军府编制令》,但该机关在国家军事政治生活中并不能起到应有作用,只是中央政府笼络大小武人的一种手段。将军名号的封授,并不完全按照军功进行,而是充斥着权力的纠葛纷争。因并无实权,故北洋军政要员对管理将军府事务这一虚职纷纷避让。日形局促中的将军府终在存续十余年后于段祺瑞"执政"时代废止。张作霖为安抚手下,再启将军封授声浪,但已与昔日将军府无大干系。该制度推行未及半载,即随着北洋政府在全国统治的结束而无形废止。关于将军府研究,前辈学者已有一些研究,但或语焉不详,或有"拔高"及不确之处,兹于本文试作梳理。     

Why the General said No

Based upon recently published volumes of French diplomatic documents, this review article examines the course of the negotiations for British entry into the European Economic Community from 1961 to 1963 and the reasons why France vetoed Britains application. It is clear that even before the British government launched its application, the French government was aware of the threat it posed to the cohesion of the Community and to French interests. It therefore pursued tactics of delay. The British, who were in a hurry to join, vainly sought to convince the French of their conversion to the Gaullist conception of a con–federal Europe that would be independent of both the Soviet Union and the United States, even dangling the prospect of nuclear cooperation before President de Gaulle. The latter's position inside France was relatively weak until he won a referendum on the direct election of the president in October 1962 and his party triumphed in the legislative elections the following month. De Gaulle then felt secure enough to tell Prime Minister Macmillan quite bluntly at their Rambouillet meeting on 15–16 December 1962 that he did not believe that Britain was ready for EEC membership. He had thus already made up his mind to exclude Britain before the Nassau agreement between President Kennedy and Mr Macmillan in which the former agreed to supply Britain with Polaris nuclear missiles, although this agreement confirmed his belief that Britain was excessively dependent upon the United States. Although economic questions—particularly those relating to the system of agricultural support and to Britain's request for special concessions to Australia, Canada and New Zealand—did play an important part in de Gaulle's decision, it is clear that political factors were uppermost in his mind. He did not want either a diluted Community or one in which there was a possible rival to French leadership.