殷墟1004号王墓出土青铜胄研究

对商晚期都城殷墟遗址的1004号王墓出土的7件青铜胄进行了热电离质谱(TIMS)铅同位素比值分析和电感耦合等离子体发射光谱(ICP-OES)成分分析,数据显示铜胄的合金类型可分为两类——锡青铜和铅锡青铜,且其二者的铅同位素比值均处于高放射性成因铅范围。此研究结果为探索金属矿料的产地来源及此著名王墓的年代等问题提供了重要线索。     

Lead isotope and metal source of Shang bronzes: a response to Sun et al.’s comments

In this brief response to Sun et al.’s ( 2018 ) comments on our paper, we re‐emphasize that archaeological, chemical and isotopic evidence are all relevant to the discussion about the metal source of the Shang period with highly radiogenic lead isotope ratios. The southern African bronzes have much lower lead contents and quite different lead isotopic signatures than the Shang bronzes. More importantly, there was no metallurgy of any kind in southern Africa before c.200 ce , so southern Africa cannot possibly be the source of Shang bronze, which date to about 1500 to 1000 bce .     

Special alloys from remote frontiers of the Shang Kingdom: scientific study of the Hanzhong bronzes from southwest Shaanxi, China

More than 200 bronze objects found in Hanzhong, southwest Shaanxi Province, China, a frontier region of the Shang Kingdom during the Shang dynasty, have been analysed for their composition and microstructure. Forty-three typologically distinct, and probably culturally indigenous, items have been found to be compositionally distinctive as well. This paper presents analytical results of the two types of local Hanzhong bronzes, namely the sickle-shaped and sceptre-shaped objects. Three special alloys, arsenic bronze, antimonial bronze and copper–nickel–arsenic ternary alloy, are particularly emphasized and discussed. The archaeological context of Hanzhong bronzes and their significance for the archaeometallurgy research of the Shang period are discussed as well.     

AN ELEMENTAL AND LEAD‐ISOTOPIC STUDY ON BRONZE HELMETS FROM ROYAL TOMB NO. 1004 IN YIN RUINS

Lead isotope and element composition analyses were performed by thermal ionization mass spectrometry (TIMS) and inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectroscopy (ICP–OES) on bronze helmets from royal tomb No. 1004 at Yin Ruins, the last capital of China's Shang Dynasty (17th to 11th centuries bc ). The data show that the copper‐based alloy helmets can be divided into two categories: tin bronze and leaded tin bronze; and the lead isotope ratios for both categories are in the range of highly radiogenic lead (HRL). This result offers some important clues to answering questions concerning the provenance of raw metal materials, as well as the chronology of this famous royal tomb.     

Scientific examination of Shang-dynasty bronzes from Hanzhong,Shaanxi Province,China

Shang-dynasty bronzes recovered in the Hanzhong region, Shaanxi province have been receiving considerable research interest since the 1950s due to their strong regional characteristics. This paper presents preliminary analytical results of 16 samples taken from 13 Hanzhong bronze objects, which, for the first time, have revealed their diversity in chemical composition and casting quality. In particular, the finding that some correspondence probably exists between the types of artefact and their materials has significant implications for identifying regional technical characteristics of the Hanzhong bronzes, as well as for exploring the interaction between the metropolitan areas of the Shang Kingdom with the areas beyond its southwestern frontiers.     

Comment on ‘Did China Import Metals from Africa in the Bronze Age?’

Lead isotope compositions provide a direct means of assessing provenance. The lead contents in bronzes cannot be used to argue against lead isotopes. Any claim for the origin of the source material for the origin of Yin‐Shang bronzes must satisfy the measured lead isotope compositions. Thus far, only southern African sources are found to meet this criteria.     

The bronze artifacts from the Yejiashan site and the political presence of the Zhou dynasty in the middle Yangtze Plain: an application of lead isotope analysis

Lead isotope ratios of 15 Chinese bronze artifacts from the Yejiashan site (Suizhou City, Hubei Province) were analyzed and compared with copper ores across China. This study attempts to provide a new perspective to discuss the role that Zeng State played among all the vassal states in the early Zhou dynasty (ca. 1046–977 BC). The political presence of the Zhou dynasty in the middle Yangtze Plain is another main content of this paper. The lead isotopic characteristics of Chinese bronze artifacts between different historical periods are also in the scope of the study. By comparison, the lead isotopic ratios of the tested bronzes and copper deposits in the north Jiangxi Province show numerous overlaps. It indicates that the tested bronzes might have a single ore source, and this source was in the south of the Zhou dynasty. Combined with history and archaeological records, it is highly likely that the middle Yangtze Plain might be a part of the Zhou dynasty since the very beginning. Moreover, Zeng State might have a great influence in the ancient middle Yangtze Plain, and the nobles of Zeng State might even have authority to supervise certain area extending to Jiujiang. As lead isotopes of the bronzes appear to show a clear relation to chronology, the change of lead isotope patterns across times may further serve to distinguish the bronzes of the Western Zhou dynasty from the late Shang ones.     

二里头文化研究的新视角——从青铜器的铅同位素比值看二里头四期的文化性质

对于二里头文化的性质问题,学术界已进行了数十年的讨论,然而直到目前,共识却仍未能达成。本文首次从青铜器铅同位素比值分析入手,对二里头文化的性质问题予以探讨。经过对偃师二里头、郑州二里岗、黄陂盘龙城、安阳殷墟等遗址出土青铜器的铅同位素比值数据的分析与讨论,我们支持二里头文化一至三期属夏文化、第四期遗存则已进入了商代纪年的观点。     

Application of Kernel Density Estimates to Lead Isotope Compositions of Bronzes from Ningxia,North‐West China

The aim of this paper is to apply kernel density estimates (KDEs) to the visualization and interpretation of lead isotope data from bronze assemblages found along the northern border of central China, here designated as the Arc. New lead isotope analyses of 30 leaded tin–bronze artefacts from the Wangdahu cemetery (c.500–300 bc ) in the Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region, north‐west China, provide the basis for the discussion. By using multivariate KDEs and the calculated likelihood of the overlap, the present work shows that the Wangdahu objects feature a unique linear array of isotope ratios, representing an important element of overall bronzes from the Arc in the first millennium bc . This characteristic isotope signature is fundamentally different from that of Dajing ores in north‐east China, as well from that of early Qin bronzes in Shaanxi and Gansu provinces. This suggests that a variety of metal resources were utilized by peoples living in the Arc. The KDE approach thus proves effective at presenting and comparing lead isotope data.     

秦始皇帝陵园出土彩绘青铜水禽铜矿料来源探索

关于秦始皇帝陵出土彩绘青铜水禽铜矿料来源的研究,对进一步研究秦代的物质文化、青铜器冶铸工艺、装饰工艺以及铜矿来源均具有重要意义。本研究对部分秦始皇帝陵园出土彩绘青铜水禽基体进行了铅同位素分析及微量元素分析。并在此基础之上,与甘肃东部及关中西部出土的部分早期秦文化铜器、国墓地出土的部分铜器、周原李家铸铜作坊出土的部分铜器、山西中条山、江西瑞昌、江西铜岭、安徽铜陵以及湖北大冶铜绿山古铜矿以及秦岭山区的部分现代铜矿的相关数据进行了对比研究。结果发现,秦始皇帝陵园出土的青铜水禽使用了相同的矿料,且与绝大多数早期秦文化铜器所使用的矿料基本相同,但与国墓地以及李家铸铜作坊出土西周铜器的矿料明显有别。秦人使用的铜矿与秦岭山区现代铜矿较为接近,表明秦人的铜矿来源可能与秦岭山区有关。     

Did China Import Metals from Africa in the Bronze Age?

The origins of the copper, tin and lead for China's rich Bronze Age cultures are a major topic in archaeological research, with significant contributions being made by archaeological fieldwork, archaeometallurgical investigations and geochemical considerations. Here, we investigate a recent claim that the greater part of the Shang‐period metalwork was made using metals from Africa, imported together with the necessary know‐how to produce tin bronze. A brief review of the current status of lead isotopic study on Shang‐period bronze artefacts is provided first, clarifying a few key issues involved in this discussion. It is then shown that there is no archaeological or isotopic basis for bulk metal transfer between Africa and China during the Shang period, and that the copper and lead in Shang bronze with a strongly radiogenic signature is not likely to be from Africa. We call for collaborative interdisciplinary research to address the vexing question of the Shang period's metal sources, focusing on smelting sites in geologically defined potential source regions and casting workshops identified at a number of Shang settlements.     

湖北宜城跑马堤墓地出土铜器的科学分析研究

跑马堤墓地是位于湖北省宜城市郑集镇的一处战国至汉代墓地。该墓地出土了大量青铜器,为研究从战国到汉代青铜器的制作技术变迁提供了系统性的资料。本研究对该墓地出土的部分铜器进行了金相组织观察和元素成分分析。结果显示,战国晚期铜器的材质包括铅锡青铜和锡青铜两类,不同类型功用的器物,在材质的选择上也有所不同;西汉铜器的材质则以铅锡青铜为主,合金元素总量相对于战国晚期铜器要低,而且变化范围较大。整体上,该批铜器主要为铸造成型,但其中有3件汉代青铜容器为锻造而成,这三件锻造铜器均为敞口薄壁器物。研究结果可为汉代以后考古学和金属技术史研究提供资料,并为中国古代金属技术史演进序列的补充完善提供科学数据。     

A study of the glazing techniques and provenances of Tang sancai glazes using elemental and lead isotope analyses

This study discusses the elemental compositions and lead isotope ratios of Tang sancai glazes unearthed from the Huangpu kiln, Huangye kiln and two Tang sancai tomb sites. The various glazes feature distinct lead isotope ratios and trace element characteristics, which can be interpreted as evidence for the use of different lead ore deposits and siliceous raw materials in the glazes. This is a strong indication that lead isotopes combined with trace element analysis could be used as a viable approach for identifying the provenance of Tang sancai of unknown origin by linking them to kiln sites, This provenance technique could be significant in the interpretation of ancient ceramic trade and communication patterns. In this study, the provenance of several Tang sancai glazes of uncertain origin were determined using this method: some Tang sancai wares unearthed in Xi'an City were produced in the kiln near Luoyang City and then traded to Xi'an City, providing an idea of ancient Tang sancai ceramic trade routes.     

论济南大辛庄遗址M139新出青铜器

济南大辛庄遗址M139为2010年重要的新考古发现,该墓葬以其高等级、较多青铜器出土在商文化的周边地区,具有多方面的意义。本文指出M139出土的青铜器具有典型商文化特征,但这些青铜器同时表现出年代滞后的特质,即多数青铜器年代属于殷墟文化时期,却又具有若干较早的二里冈文化时期特征。这种特质说明M139青铜器属于商文化体系内本地独立生产的青铜器。     

殷墟孝民屯东南地出土陶范年代的再认识及相关问题

孝民屯东南地铸铜遗址是近年殷墟发掘工作的一项重要收获,对研究殷墟铜器铸造工艺和殷墟布局具有重要意义[1]。伴随殷墟晚期陶器出土的大量陶范为殷墟铜器分期和商末周初铜器断代提供了难得的材料,引起学者们的广泛关注。     

何郢遗址出土青铜器铜矿料来源的初步研究

本文利用地球化学示踪的方法对何郢遗址出土青铜器的铜矿料来源进行了初步研究.采用ICP-AES测试了样品的微量元素,根据元素的地球化学亲和性,探索其在冶炼过程中的化学行为和再分配规律,从而选出对铜绿山和皖南的铜陵、南陵铜矿具有指示意义的特征元素,作为判断其铜料输出路线的综合判别标志.结合文献和地质资料,可初步认为何郢遗址青铜器的铜矿料来自滁县.     

铅同位素考古研究的可行性问题——浅议“青铜器铅同位素指示意义的范铸实验研究”

国际上对铅同位素示踪方法在青铜器原料产地研究中的应用做过很多探讨。《范铸》一文再次提出有关问题,认为铅同位素分析结果不能确切指示青铜器铜锡铅原料的来源信息。本文考察了其依据的实验数据,它们似乎与其观点互相矛盾,其结论说服力相当有限。     

论西周时期人兽母题青铜器

本文对西周时期人兽母题青铜器进行归纳、梳理,并通过与商代人兽母题青铜器的比较研究,认为商代人兽母题纹样发展到西周时期,已明显发生了变化,即已由完全宗教含义转变为单一的军队威猛的象征,是炫耀战功的一种形式。     

郑韩故城出土青铜器的矿料来源初步分析

基于富集在铜料中而保留其母矿信息的元素可以用于示踪青铜器的矿料来源,为了解郑韩故城青铜器的矿料来源,利用ICP-AES方法对郑韩故城出土东周时期青铜器的微量元素进行了检测。结果显示,21个青铜器样品微量元素特征具有相对一致性,推测可能具有相同的原料来源。与小双桥遗址出土青铜器的微量元素特征进行对比,二者存在明显的差异,说明从商代中期到春秋战国时期,这一地区的原料来源发生了改变。研究结果可为研究东周时期这一地区铜业发展状况提供线索。     

Geological constraints on the use of lead isotopes for provenance in archaeometallurgy

The first part of this paper is a brief critical history of the use of Pb isotopes for inferring the geological provenance of archaeological materials, with an emphasis on non-ferrous metals. The second part examines variation in the Pb isotopic ratios of oxide and sulphide ore minerals in selected regions of the world, and relates these to the geological histories of ore formation in each region. This exercise shows that in regions where most ore deposits are of similar geological age—as in the Andes, Europe and the circum-Mediterranean—provenance analysis with Pb isotopes is inherently difficult because geographically distant sources often exhibit similar isotopic ratios. Conversely, regions with many periods of ore formation—such as southern Africa—appear to be very promising regions for future studies of provenance with Pb isotopes. The wider implication of this exploratory survey is that archaeologists should carefully consider the range and clustering of geological Pb isotopic ratios in their regions of interest before investing large sums of money into Pb isotopic analysis of artefacts.