The bamboo raft as a key to the introduction of the sweet potato in prehistoric Polynesia

The idea that American Indians played no part in Polynesian prehistory originated with J.R. Forster, a companion of Cook on his second voyage. Forster made a comparative study of five Polynesian languages, using a basic list of 40 words that included 'sweet potato'. He concluded that although there were many similarities between those languages and the languages of Southeast Asia, 'no distant or accidental similarity' existed between the Polynesian and American languages. Moreover, the 'wretchedness and small size' of American sailing craft proved 'incontestably' that the Pacific Islanders had not originated in the Americas. The premises for Forster's claims have long been proved to be wrong. Yet many scholars still accept his main conclusion. This article contraverts that view. It argues that voyagers from Mindanao crossed the Pacific to Ecuador in about 200 BC on a bamboo raft and that this became the prototype of the balsa rafts of Ecuador and Peru of early Spanish times. Such rafts made prehistoric voyages to Mexico, south-central Chile, and the Galapagos Islands. Easter Island's first settlers, it is argued, were drifted there in a balsa raft. A new claim that Polynesians from Easter Island sailed to South America and returned with the sweet potato and bottle gourd is also discussed.     

Starch analysis reveals prehistoric plant translocations and shell tool use,Marquesas Islands,Polynesia

Starch analysis is proving particularly useful in tropical regions like the central Pacific where crop inventories are often dominated by starchy fruits and tubers and recovery of macrobotanical remains is rare. Analysis of 23 shell tools from the Marquesas Islands provides direct evidence for translocation of five traditional crop plants. Four taxa derive from the western Pacific, including Artocarpus altilis (breadfruit), Piper methysticum (kava), Colocasia esculenta (taro), and one or more species of Dioscorea (yam). The fifth taxon, the South American Ipomoea batatas (sweet potato), dates from the 14th century AD onward and constitutes the earliest record of this cultigen in the archipelago. The occurrence of sweet potato starch suggests that this crop plant may have been more important than usually is assumed, while the limited recovery of breadfruit starch, the main Marquesan food plant at western contact, requires further investigation. The starch residues also inform on tool use, demonstrating that shell tools ethnographically associated with specific crops (e.g., “breadfruit peelers”) had more generalised functions. This study is a further demonstration of the potential of starch analysis to provide important information on the history of crop introductions, on-site activities, and artefact use.     

The evolution of sociopolitical complexity in prehistoric Hawaii: An assessment of the archaeological evidence

The sociopolitical system of late prehistoric Hawaii was among the most complex of any Oceanic chiefdom, as indexed by such characteristics as scale, rate of energy extraction, degree of functional specialization, and political hierarchy. Various anthropologists and archaeologists have advanced models of how this complex sociopolitical system developed out of an earlier Ancestral Polynesian society. Recent advances in Hawaiian archaeology have now begun to provide a wealth of data on the course of prehistoric change in the archipelago over some 1500 years and, thus, provide evidence which can be used to test alternative models of the evolution of sociopolitical complexity. This paper reviews the major alternative models that have been put forward and provides a synopsis of the archaeological evidence relevant to their testing.     

Toward an archaeology of late prehistoric Eskimo bands in coastal northwest Alaska

The methodology of analogical explanation of prehistoric Eskimo remains in northwest Alaska is examined. The sociospatial organization of Wales or, Kingigan, settlement and the greater Kingikmiut territory is evaluated as an example based on ethnohistorical studies and archaeological excavations carried out at three sites in the locality since 1926, and relationships between the archaeological material and historic socio-spatial divisions of Kingigan are explored. The review reveals that only two historic family compound locations have been sampled archaeologically, and that several others have not yet been sampled. However, existing samples nevertheless represent the larger Agianamiut, Kiatanamiut and Kurigitavik districts in the settlement, ca. AD 1800–1850 and extending back to prehistoric times from ca. AD 1000. A nomenclature for socio-spatial units is proposed that includes compound families, local bands, tribal capitals and tribes based on examples of historic Eskimo territorial organization. Caution is suggested in applying the nomenclature to prehistoric cultures in cases where continuity of artifact forms, art styles and motifs with historic local cultures are not demonstrable. Application of historic Eskimo analogues to prehistoric entities such as Birnirk and Punuk cultural remains risk fallacious interpretations because continuity with historic examples are not demonstrable and alternative explanations cannot be eliminated.     

Examining dispersal mechanisms for the translocation of chicken (Gallus gallus) from Polynesia to South America

DNA sequencing and radiocarbon dates from the archaeological site of El Arenal-1 (Arauco Peninsula, south central Chile) suggest that Polynesians may have introduced chicken (Gallus gallus) to South America prehistorically (A.D. 1300–1420). The Chilean specimen identified has the exact same amplified mtDNA pattern as samples recovered from archaeological sites in Samoa and Tonga, but is only one base different from prehistoric chicken samples from Tonga (n = 1), Niue (n = 1), Easter Island (n = 1 of 6), and Hawai'i (n = 1). To examine the possible dispersal mechanisms of chicken between Polynesian islands and the Americas, we conducted computer simulations of seafaring from these six island groups and the Tuamotus, as well as return voyages. Simulation results from sailed vessels suggest that in certain months, landfall on the Pacific Coast of South America from Samoa and Tonga was fairly successful at around 40% (particularly in March for the former and January/February for the latter). For Niue, sailed vessels were 21% successful in January with only 2% success in December. Sailed vessels from the Tuamotus (a proxy for closer island groups to the west with evidence for chicken such as the Cook Islands) were successful in January and December, with 15% and 23% of the vessels making landfall in South America. Vessels sailing from all simulations heading east from Easter Island resulted in landfall. Hawai'i had only a 1% success rate if sailing in January, but high numbers of vessels reached southern Mexico and Central America in August and September. Most landfalls occurred much farther north than Chile, in Ecuador and Peru. Unsuccessful voyages from all of the islands other than Easter Island and Hawai'i often made landfall on islands to the east. Return voyages from Chile were not possible or extremely rare during most times of the year. Overall, seafaring simulations suggest that Polynesians may not have initially landed in close proximity to El Arenal-1—contemporaneous or even earlier archaeological evidence of translocated chicken remains may indeed be found further north. In addition, if Polynesians found it difficult or impossible to return to their homeland, the possibility exists that co-mingling between Polynesians and South American groups resulted in offspring that carried an admixture of genetic traits.     

Thorium-230 coral chronology of a late prehistoric Hawaiian chiefdom

Documenting the history of settlement in Hawaii during the last few centuries before European contact, is crucial to charting the evolution of the most complex chiefdom in Polynesia. It is precisely this period that Hawaii, and many Polynesian societies, underwent their most rapid changes in political, economic and social organisation. The last ∼500 to 300 years in the ¹⁴C calibration curve is problematic with wide fluctuations often rendering large age spans that do not precisely date single events, especially troubling with a culture-historical record of ∼1000 years duration. Here we present an extremely high precision ²³⁰Th chronology for archaeologically constrained coral samples from a range of occupancy sites. Our high precision dates allow the time of site use to be clearly demonstrated. They also provide the first dates for habitation sites in Hawaii that clearly show contemporaneous occupation—the major problem in settlement pattern archaeology. We demonstrate that two sites were occupied within the same year. Our refined chronology, provides new and exciting opportunities for tracking sociopolitical and economic developments during the last few centuries—the crucial period in the evolution and transformation of Polynesian societies.     

A short note on starch and xylem of Ipomoea batatas (sweet potato) in archaeological deposits from northern New Zealand

This study examines preservation of microfossils identified as introduced Ipomoea batatas in soils from northern New Zealand. Starch grains and xylem cells showed highly variable preservation, from good to extremely poor. For starch grains, the latter included brown-staining, expansion and distortion of the grain and vacuole, loss of the Maltese cross, pitting, cracking, fragmentation and disintegration. Degraded xylem showed similar brown-staining, occasional cracking, cross-wise fragmentation, with wall pits becoming progressively less visible or showing distortion, expansion and coalescence.     

Gazetteer of small‐scale monuments in prehistoric Hadramawt,Yemen: a radiocarbon chronology from the RASA‐AHSD Project research 1996–2008

This paper provides a new, interpretive gazetteer and chronology of Hadramawt’s highland monuments based on results from archaeological survey and test excavations by the RASA‐AHSD (Roots of Agriculture in southern Arabia‐Arabian Human Social Dynamics) Project. With the exception of a few incidental sightings and an unpublished pipeline survey, the prehistoric record of southern Yemen’s highland plateau has been largely unknown. There are few settlements, so that understanding human landscape history must begin with the numerous small‐scale stone monuments left by mobile people. With examples representing monuments from the fifth, fourth, third and first millennia BC, the corpus of small excavations and radiocarbon dates reported here provides the first guide to the monument types of South Arabian highlands. Monument building began under more moist conditions and appears to have commemorated animal sacrifices long before commemorating mortuary rites and interment. There appears to be a temporal break of 1000 years before the widespread and varied practices of Bronze Age tomb construction, which lasted through the third millennium BC. After another break in monument construction, tombs were reused in the first millennium BC, sometimes with successive ritual visits. The data presented offer new material for the interpretation of the lives and activities of prehistoric pastoralists throughout the Holocene.     

The ‘walking’ megalithic statues (moai) of Easter Island

Explaining how the monumental statues (moai) of Easter Island were transported has remained open to debate and speculation, including their resource expenditures and role in deforestation. Archaeological evidence including analysis of moai variability, particularly those abandoned along ancient roads, indicates transport was achieved in a vertical position. To test this proposition we constructed a precise three-dimensional 4.35 metric ton replica of an actual statue and demonstrate how positioning the center of mass allowed it to fall forward and rock from side to side causing it to ‘walk.’ Our experiments reveal how the statue form was engineered for efficient transport by a small number of individuals.     

Archaeology in the Pacific Islands: An appraisal of recent research

The Pacific Islands or Oceania, typically subdivided into Melanesia, Micronesia, and Polynesia, have witnessed a virtual explosion of archaeological research, as indicated by this review of the past 5 years' literature. Most recent work centers on one or more of six major themes. Two themes are concerned with the movement of people into the Pacific region: the discovery of Pleistocene-age sites in island Melanesia and the search for early assemblages evidencing Austronesian dispersals. Substantial efforts have also focused on reconstructing prehistoric economic behavior and on assessing the impacts that colonizing human populations had on isolated and fragile island ecosystems. In the realm of social archaeology, Oceanic studies have contributed to understanding the long-term dimensions of interisland exchange and to the rise of complex, hierarchical sociopolitical systems, especially chiefdoms.     

Petrographic and geochemical investigations of the late prehistoric ceramics from Sos Höyük,Erzurum (Eastern Anatolia)

Ceramics from the late prehistoric periods at Sos Höyük, in Eastern Anatolia, located along a thoroughfare that connects the Trans-Caucasus, Iran and central Anatolia, were subjected to petrographic and X-ray fluorescence analysis in order to characterise the clay groups, with a view to determining provenance and production patterns. Dominated by Kura-Araxes Ware, the data from the sequence at Sos Höyük were compared with the previous studies from the neighbouring regions to understand commonalities in pottery production. The analyses reveal a local production of vessels, most probably for household use. Although Sos Höyük potters shared similarities in the procurement pattern of raw clays and production technique with their neighbours, differences can be also recognized.     

中国礼乐文明之源--以史前乐舞遗存为例

前仰韶时期的乐舞遗存仅作为日常生活用品,至仰韶时代晚期陶鼓乐器已为少数权力阶层拥有,龙山时代以鼓磬为组合特征的乐舞遗存标志中国礼乐明的基本形成。     

Modeling Late Copper Age demographics on the Great Hungarian Plain using ceramic petrography

Ceramic petrography can be an effective method for studying demographic shifts and the possibility of migration into a region. This is based on the principle that ceramic manufacturing technology is resistant to change over time, while form and decoration can change quickly even in times of demographic continuity. As such, sudden shifts in raw material preparation and methods of pottery manufacture may be indicative of the arrival of new people in a region. The manufacturing characteristics indicative of such a demographic change are observable and measurable microscopically. Petrography was used to describe and measure paste characteristics of 114 Middle Copper Age, Late Copper Age, Early Bronze Age, and Middle Bronze Age sherds from the Körös region of the Great Hungarian Plain to determine if changes in manufacturing techniques accompanied changes in ceramic form and decoration at the beginning of the Late Copper Age Baden period (ca. cal. 3500 B.C.). A comparison of the petrographic results from the cultural phases showed that little manufacturing and technology change occurred during the time period covered by the study. Migration of new people into the region is therefore not supported, and changes in ceramic form and decoration associated with the Late Copper Age occurred during an extended period of demographic continuity.     

长江流域史前古城的初步研究

一长江流域现已发现的史前城址（一）长江中游的史前城址长江中游现已发现的史前城址主要有湖南澧县城头山、湖北石首市走马岭、江陵阴湘城、荆门马家垸、天门石家河等。据报道湖南澧县鸡叫城,也是一座史前古城。据悉,长江中游地区现已发现的史前城址还有四、五座［１］...     

论黄河流域前期新石器文化的文化特征和时代特征

７０年代以来,在黄河流域陆续发现的几支前期新石器文化,曾在学术界引起热烈讨论。本文通过对每个文化的分布区域及文化特征的具体分析,阐明了它们相互之间的纵横关系,认为它们是各自相对独立的文化实体。     

山东史前乐器初探

本文主要根据最近几年山东地区的田野考古资料,对发掘中出土的一些史前时期的陶鼓、笛柄杯、陶响器、陶(骨)哨、陶号角、陶铃、陶埙等乐器作了介绍,并就与此相关问题进行了初步的探讨。     

Reassessing the Developmental and Chronological Relationships of the Formative of Coastal Ecuador

The Ecuadorian Formative was initially interpreted as a result of long-distance diffusion, and migration, more recent research has changed our perception of the Valdivia, Machalilla, and Chorrera culture complexes. In this analysis, these archaeological investigations are reassessed in order to reevaluate our understanding regarding the nature of these prehistoric cultures. Formative chronologies, distributions, interrelationships are reviewed in the light of Pre-Hispanic occupations in El Oro Province. Previous investigations on the Ecuadorian littoral are examined. Results indicate (1) Valdivia and Machalilla are part of the same ceramic tradition and (2) the interrelationships of these complexes to Late Formative Period ceramic sequences are more complex than previously assumed. (3) A major adaptive shift related to an increased dependence upon agriculture occurred during Valdivia VI–VIII, and continued into the Late Formative with the widespread distribution of Chorrera related material culture. (4) Long-distance interaction with the Ecuadorian highlands resulted in the spread of what may be termed a Chorrera horizon and formed the basis of subsequent Andean cosmology where it was symbolically represented according to local and regional artistic canons and over a vast area of Andean South America.     

略论史前聚落的萌芽与发生

聚落作为人类重要的文化现象,普遍发达于新石器时代,但其本身也存在着一个漫长的发展过程。从世界范围来看,聚落的萌芽似应发端于晚期直立人以来的地面穴居现象,并随着房屋建筑、墓葬以及窖穴等诸多要素的相继出现而日渐复杂。至迟在旧石器时代晚期可能就逐渐开始形成了一些较为显著的聚落布局规划现象,为史前聚落的进一步发展奠定了基础。     

渭河流域史前石斧的初步研究

本文拟就现有的考古资料对渭河流域的史前石斧进行考古类型学分析,梳理其形制的演变,并就石斧的用途和社会意义等问题进行讨论。     

A Multi‐disciplinary Approach to the Archaeological Investigation of a Bedrock‐Dominated Shallow‐Marine Landscape: an example from the Bay of Firth,Orkney, UK

Investigation of shallow‐marine environments for submerged prehistoric archaeology can be hampered in many localities by extensive bedrock exposure and thus limited preservation potential. Using the concept of ‘seamless archaeology’ where land‐based archaeology is integrated across the intertidal zone through to the offshore, a multi‐disciplinary approach is essential. This approach taken in the Bay of Firth, Orkney uses geophysics, historical archive and ethno‐archaeology, coastal geomorphology, palaeo‐environmental analyses and sea‐level science, and allows a clearer understanding of the landscape in which prehistoric settlers lived. While acknowledging the limitations of the preserved environment, we are successful in identifying areas of archaeological potential on the sea‐bed for both upstanding structural elements as well as sediment preservation that contains evidence for human occupation. This has wider implications beyond Orkney's World Heritage sites to provide a blueprint for similar studies elsewhere in the coastal zone. © 2012 The Authors