Observations on Seasonality and Mortality from a Recent Catastrophic Death Assemblage

On 3 November 1991, a group of 150 pronghorn went over a cliff near Green River, Wyoming. This mortality site provides a unique opportunity to examine a number of characteristics of catastrophic death assemblages that may aid in the interpretation of archaeological bonebed sites. In 1993, the mandibles were collected for a study of seasonality and age estimation. Examination of seasonality revealed some variation in estimates by eruption/wear and cementum increments. Six percent of 86 fawn specimens exhibit eruption and wear more advanced than expected for a November third event, and 21% of 28 cementum increment estimates differ from the known November third mortality date by a month or more. These data suggest some degree of error is inherent in seasonality estimates that must be considered when interpreting seasonal distributions. Age estimates by eruption and wear reveal a distribution of pronghorn ages with many more juvenile animals than expected for a known “catastrophic” event. This may be explained by the pattern of seasonal hunting in a modern managed herd, which is likely to be very different than aboriginal hunting patterns. Age estimates by eruption/wear and cementum increment techniques failed to agree within six months in 48% of 29 test cases, with a tendency for cementum ages to be younger in 71% of specimens in which estimates of age differed. In general, the mandible assemblage exhibited more variability than one might expect for a single catastrophic kill event.     

Polarizing Microscopy Identification of Chemical Diagenesis in Archaeological Cementum

Cementum increment analysis can potentially retrieve relatively complete, high-precision seasonality and mortality profiles from archaeological mammalian tooth assemblages. However, cementum exhibits many similarities to bone in composition, histology, ultrastructure, and even microstructure. Consequently, the mineralized dental tissue may be prone to the same processes of post-depositional chemical alteration that affect bone. This article reviews the issues surrounding chemical diagenesis in cementum and presents a new application to archaeological ungulate cementum of a polarizing microscopy technique that has previously been utilized to identify the effects of chemical diagenesis in archaeological bone and human cementum (Geusa et al., 1999; Gilbert, 1989; Watson, 1975; Zeder, 1978). It is argued that the post mortem leaching of collagen and the diagenetic growth of apatite crystallites can develop into banded features that mimic seasonal cementum increments. This pattern of diagenesis is demonstrated in multiple locations on a macroscopically well-preserved Upper Pleistocene-age archaeological tooth, which was previously interpreted by the author to exhibit biogenic seasonal cementum increments (Stutz, 1993; Stutz et al., 1995). It is suggested that if researchers seek to retrieve seasonality and mortality data from archaeological cementum, the microscopy analysis protocol must include screening of a pilot sample for the frequency and extent of chemical diagenesis.     

DIGITAL CEMENTUM LUMINANCE ANALYSIS AND THE HAUA FTEAH HOMININS: HOW SEASONALITY AND SEASON OF USE CHANGED THROUGH TIME*

The importance of environmental seasonality and the seasonal cycling of resources to human populations make studies of human responses to seasonality useful to test hypotheses about short‐ and long‐term changes in human behaviour. This paper utilizes digital dental cementum luminance analysis in order to better understand patterns of the seasons of death of Ammotragus lervia at Haua Fteah, Cyrenaica, and to test whether long‐term climatic changes can be detected in dental cement. The overall pattern of the season of death of A. lervia at Haua Fteah is that of year‐round utilization, with a slight increase over time in A. lervia use during the growth period/summer time. The use of digital cementum luminance analysis (DCLA) to detect changes in the seasonal differences between temperatures indicates a trend for increased seasonality in temperature over the past 40 000 years at Haua Fteah. Furthermore, DCLA patterns in the more recent assemblages indicate a shift to a warmer climate from Marine Oxygen Isotope Stage (MIS) 3 to MIS 1.     

Incremental banding in dental cementum: Methods of preparation for teeth from archaeological sites and for modern comparative specimens

Analysis of incremental banding in dental cementum is a well-established means of determining the age and season of death of wild mammals. The dental cementum of domesticated mammals likewise can indicate age and season of death. Methods of preparation applicable to archaeological teeth differ from those used for modern specimens, however, and this paper describes two methods that have given excellent imaging on teeth of Bos taurus; one for modern teeth and the other for teeth from archaeological sites.     

Digital cementum luminance analysis (DCLA): a tool for the analysis of climatic and seasonal signals in dental cementum

Cementum banding patterns have been used by archaeozoologists and wildlife managers for a number of decades to assess the season and age at death of mammalian populations. However, the observation and measurement of the nature of cementum banding, especially that of the final band, has proved to be difficult except under conditions of excellent preservation and advanced microscopy. The research presented here details a method for extracting luminance data from the banding patterns of cementum in order to quantify the optical properties of cementum tissue. By doing so, analysis of the relationship between cementum deposition and environmental variables is achieved. We present the results of a digital cementum luminance analysis (DCLA) on a sample of first molars from two species, Ovis aries, Soay and Capra ibex. The results indicate that significant relationships occur between seasonal temperature changes and cementum histology. Furthermore, we show that luminance values can be used to assess the geographical range of genetically similar populations. Our results demonstrate that the study of luminance is a vital tool for the quantitative study of dental cementum for both archaeological and ecological studies. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Bison breeding characteristics and interpretation of archaeological seasonality revisited

Bison breeding behaviour has been used for the last three decades as the basis for developing methods for assigning season‐of‐occupation estimates to archaeological sites on the North American Plains. These methods are based upon the supposition that the North American bison breeding season is extremely short and that genetically controlled ontological characteristics such as foetal growth and tooth eruption sequences can therefore be used to infer site seasonality in a reasonably straightforward and precise manner. This paper reviews bison population studies conducted during the past 30 years to reassess present understandings of the length of North American bison breeding seasons. It is concluded that the bison breeding season regularly extends over a period of three to four months, and that initiation of ontological development will therefore also vary over the same period of time. Bison development characteristics cannot provide a reliable or precise means of assigning seasonality to archaeological sites on the North American Plains. It is suggested that methods using physical characteristics such as dental cementum incrementation which are directly affected by seasonal changes could be more productive. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Ochre resources from the Middle Stone Age sequence of Diepkloof Rock Shelter,Western Cape,South Africa

Although no paintings are associated with archaeological contexts before the end of the Middle Stone Age, hundreds of ochre pieces were discovered on numerous southern African sites suggesting a lasting tradition of ochre use. The variability and the significance of ochre exploitation remain however poorly documented. The MSA site of Diepkloof Rock Shelter (Western Cape Province, South Africa) offers an ideal opportunity to discuss questions of ochre procurement, processing, and use over a long sequence. This study develops an original methodology based on observations on one hand, and SEM-EDS, XRD and Raman spectrometry analyses on the other hand. By comparing raw materials with our geological database, we show that some iron-rich raw materials were collected more than 20 km from the site. Such long-distance procurement combined with other elements of the overall context suggests a planning of procurement. One main chaîne opératoire based on grinding was identified at Diepkloof. In comparison with other South African sites, we observed no evidence for use as loading agent in adhesives. We conclude that ochre use may follow regional cultural patterns.     

Seasonality and paleodiet in the Chiribaya polity of southern Peru

In the Andes, the complex Chiribaya polity, or señorío, was composed of economically specialized groups. Previous carbon and nitrogen isotope analyses of archaeological human bone from Chiribaya-affiliated sites have effectively demonstrated socioeconomic specialization and variability in paleodiet among different Chiribaya-affiliated sites. The present study complements earlier paleodietary analyses of Chiribaya populations by supplementing them with carbon and nitrogen isotope analyses of archaeological human hair from the two Chiribaya-affiliated sites of Chiribaya Alta and El Yaral. These new data demonstrate that seasonal variability in the consumption of marine products and C₄ plants such as maize was quite high for some individuals buried at Chiribaya-affiliated sites. In addition to elucidating the complex patterns of Chiribaya seasonality, this study contributes to the growing body of knowledge of archaeological analyses of human hair for paleodiet.     

At the Cutting Edge: Using Thin Sectioning to Determine Season of Death of the European Oyster,Ostrea edulis

Although there have been many seasonality studies of shellfish from archaeological sites, a technique for understanding season of death for Ostrea edulis has never been attained. A methodology was achieved through thin sectioning shells from a large modern control sample collected from different locations and environments. It was found that annual lines were formed in March and April. Measuring increments was not a feasible technique for interpreting month of death so seasonal changes in the microstructure were noted instead. A blind test was carried out showing that overall 91% of assessments were correct±1 month. A second blind test by a student showed the technique may be learnt but that a large time investment is needed.     

Osteometric Analysis of South American Sea Lions (Otaria flavescens) Pups From Patagonia. An Assessment of Their Use as Indicators for Seasonality in Archaeological Sites

Zooarchaeological analyses of pinniped remains have been scarce in South America because of lack of specific studies of species determination and estimation of age and sex. Nonetheless, the presence of small and unfused bones (assigned as pup remains) of Otaria flavescens (O. flavescens) in the Patagonian archaeological record has been frequently used as an indicator of summer occupation accomplished by ecological analogues. For this reason, we carried out a postcranial skeletons osteometric study of modern pups of South American sea lions (O. flavescens) with known sex and aged 0–12 months, allowing a more precise age estimation of archaeological samples. Then, we revisited the evidence for seasonality in the Cabo Virgenes 6 site at Cabo Virgenes locality, one of the archaeological localities in Patagonia where the seasonality has been determined only on the basis of the presence of unfused pup bones. Our metric data study on a modern sample shows that the regression analyses generated a complementary and dependable age estimation model for unfused appendicular bones of O. flavescens between 0 and 12 months old that can be applied to samples recovered from archaeological sites. These osteometric studies of postcranial elements allow us to adjust the age estimation of the animal's death and re‐examine seasonality of the Cabo Virgenes 6 site (Santa Cruz, Argentina). Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Shell morphometry of seven limpet species from coastal shell middens in southern Africa

Measurements of shell parts and features (elements) of marine limpets can be used to derive morphometric equations for estimating total shell lengths. This is demonstrated for seven limpet species commonly found on the southern African coast. The equations can be used to reconstruct whole shell lengths for highly fragmented limpet samples in prehistoric shell middens. A linear regression model is based on measurements of all shell elements, resulting in high coefficients of determination with excellent predictive power in most cases. These morphometric equations would enable archaeologists to derive more metrical information from fragmentary archaeological material than was previously the case. We also present a case study where morphometric equations of two limpet species are applied to an archaeological sample from the South African west coast for the purpose of investigating possible biases in limpet shell preservation. We conclude that small whole limpet shells survive longer than the bigger ones in this particular case, but that many more such case studies need to be conducted in order to fully understand differential preservation of southern African limpet shells in archaeological sites.     

Determining Age and Season of Death by Use of Incremental Lines in Norwegian Reindeer Tooth Cementum

Using incremental patterns in tooth cementum is a powerful tool for age assessment. Recent developments have shown that the method has a large potential as an indicator of the season of death of the individual in question. In this paper, the results of a study comparing thin sections of teeth of the modern Hardangervidda reindeer population to those of Iron Age, eleventh, and thirteenth century reindeer hunting stations from the same area are presented. The tooth wear stages were compared to the actual age of the individual (based on the number of incremental lines and the age at eruption). It was established that in the studied reindeer populations wear stages sometimes result in too low an age estimate. Having identified the start of the period of deposition for rest lines in the modern reindeer population as early autumn and winter, analysis of the outermost layer in the tooth cementum at the archaeological sites points to a prolonged hunting season in the thirteenth century, while in the earlier phases hunters were probably present on fewer and shorter visits.     

Designing Digital Recording for Volunteers in Rock Art Surveys,Management Plans and Public Outreach in the Cederberg,South Africa

The rock art survey and recording project described in this paper was designed for volunteers and heritage professionals involved in locating and mapping the position of rock art and other archaeological sites in the field, recording basic details for conservation and management, and making these details accessible in digital format for researchers who might want to undertake further investigation. An OpenDataKit (ODK) App with a digital site recording form was designed for mobile phones to be used in the field and to send data directly to the digital inventory of the South African Heritage Resources Information System (SAHRIS). The inventory has accumulated over 3000 sites with Later Stone Age rock paintings in the mountainous terrain of the Cederberg, a region that includes properties in the serial Cape Floral Region World Heritage Site in the Western Cape Province. More than a third of these rock art sites have been added to the database since 2007 by the members of the South African Archaeological Society. The information forms the basis for rock art management plans that are given to property owners to guide them in maintaining the value of the rock art. Interpretation of the information has raised awareness of the significance of the rock art in its historical and landscape setting with a trail and information boards. Local residents and CapeNature staff, who have received training in rock art monitoring and tourist guiding, play a key role in implementing the management plans for CapeNature properties, and monitoring individual sites and trails. The broader international context of volunteer programmes for archaeological site recording suggests that this type of programme has the potential to raise awareness of rock art beyond books and visits to museums and public lectures.     

Simulating global patterns of Pleistocene hominin morphology

The first ever simulations of global patterns of early Homo morphology are presented here. These simulations are a good match to the known patterns in the fossil record. An enhanced version of the Stepping Out model is presented which simulated global patterns of hominin morphology including genetic drift and the homogenising effects of inter-group exchange. Stepping Out is then used to examine the importance of environmental factors on hominin morphology. The most significant feature of the simulations is an emergent division between the African and Asian populations. The effect of biogeographical factors on this division and other patterning is considered. Throughout, modelling results are interpreted in the context of fossil and archaeological records in order to enhance our understanding of population histories of hominin groups.     

Seasonality only works in certain parts of the year: the reconstruction of fishing seasons through otolith analysis

Seasonality estimations using incremental data usually suffer from small sample sizes and from the lack of comparison with sufficiently large modern samples. The present contribution reports on incremental studies carried out on large assemblages of plaice (Pleuronectes platessa) and haddock (Melanogrammus aeglefinus) from a late medieval fishing village (Raversijde, Belgium) on the North Sea coast. In an attempt to refine previous seasonality estimates made for this site, and to expand conclusions concerning general methodology, extensive monthly samples of modern otoliths of these species, caught within the North Sea, have also been investigated. The modern material shows that the timing of the seasonal changes in the edge type (hyaline or opaque) of the otoliths is extremely variable and that it is dependent on the fishing ground, the year considered, and the age of the fish. It also appears that the increase of the marginal increment thickness is highly variable, to such an extent that the thickness of the last increment of a single otolith is mostly useless for seasonality estimation. Where large archaeological otolith assemblages can be studied, preferably from single depositional events, seasonality determination becomes possible on the condition, however, that the archaeological assemblage corresponds to fish that were captured during their period of fast growth. The growth ring study on the otoliths from Raversijde shows that plaice fishing took place in spring and that it was preceded by a haddock fishing season, probably in late winter/early spring. Copyright © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Some Evidence for Seasonality amongst Later Stone Age Hunter-gatherers in Southern Africa

Abstract

The Later Stone Age (LSA) period in Southern Africa is characterised by a succession of cultural traditions. The LSA hunter-gatherer populations were ancestral to the present-day San. They moved around in small bands, within a semi-fixed territory visiting open air and shelter sites to coincide with available resources.

The hunter-gatherers filled every niche in the environment, including the high mountains, deserts and semi-deserts, bush savanna and grass lands. They were well aware of the food sources available in their territories during the course of a year and utilized these opportunities. As winters in southern Africa are relatively mild, and most regions have foods available throughout the year, seasonality is difficult to demonstrate.

In only a few instances there is some evidence for seasonal use or seasonality. Age profiles of seals at Elands Bay Cave suggest short occupation periods during late winter and early spring. In the high mountains of South Africa and Lesotho, where winters are cold and frost and snow common, the faunal and floral remains suggest occupation during late spring, summer and early autumn. Abbot's Cave in the semi-arid central Karoo was used as a hunting lodge during September, relating to the lambing season and migratory behaviour of springbok (Antidorcas marsupialis).     

Wild or domesticated? An ancient DNA approach to canid species identification in South Africa's Western Cape Province

The fragmentary remains typical of archaeological fauna can prove impossible to identify when confronted with closely related sympatric species. In southern Africa domesticated dogs (Canis familiaris) and black-backed jackals (Canis mesomelas) pose just such a problem, rendering difficult an accurate assessment of the timing of arrival of domesticated dogs in the region. Contextual evidence has suggested that canid remains from four Later Stone Age archaeological sites were likely to be domesticated dogs rather than jackals, and were subjected to ancient DNA analyses to determine species. Every tested specimen proved to derive from black-backed jackals. These data provide not only an unexpected window on southern African prehistory, but also highlight the value in applying ancient DNA techniques to archaeological species identification.     

Probabilistic models of seasonal <Emphasis Type="Italic">Bison</Emphasis> exploitation based on fetal prey osteometry and reproductive phenology

Seasonality studies are a staple of Great Plains archaeology, but obtaining evidence for seasonal food procurement is challenging. This study explores seasonality through the lens of fetal bison remains. A method is developed that produces intra-annual probability distributions for the date of fetal death. These distributions are informed by osteometric data from fetal bison in archaeological contexts, fetal skeletal growth curves, and data-driven models of bison conception dates. Probabilities can be assigned to seasonality hypotheses by examining date intervals across these intra-annual distributions. This method is implemented through an R program and applied to seasonality hypotheses at three archaeological sites containing fetal bison remains: Big Goose Creek (Wyoming), Baker Cave III (Idaho), and the Upper Tucker Site (Texas). Unlike previous efforts to infer seasonality from fetal bison remains, this method provides explicit probabilities showing the level of agreement between the osteometric data and seasonality hypotheses. This probabilistic approach could be extended to seasonality studies involving other animal taxa both within and outside of North America.     

Teaching Archaeological Pasts in South Africa: Historical and Contemporary Considerations of Archaeological Education

This paper discusses the history and trending of archaeological education in South Africa, a set of frameworks wherein primary and secondary level students instrumentalize archaeology to investigate and debate their pasts. Archaeological education has existed thus far as a conversation among archaeologists and a footnote in the national curriculum. I present the first cohesive treatment of these projects. I examine attendant conflicts and obstacles, drawn partly from my involvement in two South African projects but illustrating issues that I believe have global resonance. I submit that archaeological education entails engagements that hold serious ramifications for archaeological ethics, practice, and epistemology.     

Oxygen isotope seasonality in a temperate estuarine shell midden: a case study from CA-ALA-17 on the San Francisco Bay,California

Seasonality determination using stable oxygen isotope (δ¹⁸O) analyses in archaeological mollusk shell has been largely limited to aquatic settings where one of the two factors that control shell δ¹⁸O – water δ¹⁸O (or salinity) and temperature – is assumed to be constant. Open coastal marine environments reflect the former situation, and tropical estuaries constitute the latter. In an effort to expand stable isotope seasonality to an ecological setting where neither variable remains constant, we present a model of annual shell δ¹⁸O cycle of aragonite deposition derived from instrumental data on salinity and temperature from San Francisco Bay, California. The predicted range of modeled shell δ¹⁸O is consistent with observed δ¹⁸O values in prehistoric and modern shells when local conditions are considered. Measurements of δ¹⁸O taken at 0 mm and 2 mm from the terminal growth margin were made on 36 archaeological specimens of Macoma nasuta from a late Holocene hunter-gatherer site CA-ALA-17, and season of collection was inferred using the shell δ¹⁸O model. We conclude that shellfish exploitation occurred through the year with the exception of fall, which may indicate scheduling conflicts with acorn harvesting or other seasonally abundant resources elsewhere. The model supports the feasibility of stable isotope seasonality studies in temperate estuaries, provided that instrumental records are available to quantify the relevant water conditions at appropriate spatial and temporal scales.