Archaeobotany,vine growing and wine producing in Roman Southern France: the site of Gasquinoy (Béziers,Hérault)

Unequivocal evidence of Roman vine cultivation and wine making is provided from studies of combined archaeological remains from the site of Gasquinoy (Southern France). Waterlogged and charred plant material (fruits/seeds/wood) collected from wells located in the close vicinity of cultivated fields and wine making establishments confirms the local significance of this activity. The results offer insights on particular aspects of wine production (‘traumatic’ treading of grapes and straining) and provide evidence of secondary agricultural activities such as cereal production and fruit tree cultivation. The potential use of monocotyledonous stems such as Arundo/Phragmites in the farming system is discussed.     

Mediterranean trade of the most widespread Roman volcanic millstones from Italy and petrochemical markers of their raw materials

The petrochemical study of millstones can contribute to improve the archaeological research into reconstruction of ancient communication routes and trade networks. Volcanic rocks are geographically restricted and rather rare in the Mediterranean regions, and during the Roman period Italian volcanoes were important sources of raw materials for millstones, so the task of determining their geological origin is relatively straightforward. The Italian vesicular volcanics most frequently employed for this purpose were: trachytes from Euganean Hills (Veneto), leucite-bearing lavas from the Vulsini Volcanic District (Latium), basic-intermediate leucite-bearing lavas from Somma-Vesuvius (Campania), silica undersaturated lavas from Monte Vulture Volcano (Basilicata), a rhyolitic ignimbrite from Sardinia and basic products from Mount Etna and the island of Pantelleria (Sicily). This paper contains a general outline of the trade network for each volcanic typology used for millstones during the Roman period – updated with data concerning the leucite-bearing lavic items discovered in the archaeological sites of the ancient Cuicul (now Djemila, Algeria) – together with a summary of their petrographic and geochemical features.     

Pollen-wood analysis at the Neapolis harbour site (1st–3rd century AD,southern Italy) and its archaeobotanical implications

Three Roman shipwrecks (Napoli A and Napoli C – 1st cent. AD; Napoli B – 2nd century AD) were recovered in the sandy-silt sediments representing the infilling of a protected inlet of Neapolis harbour (Naples, southern Italy). Extensive wood analysis suggests that a very attentive selection of species was made in shipbuilding, the choice of timber being related to wood technological properties and to the structural uses of the construction elements. Pollen data obtained from the coeval sedimentary layers revealed that all the timber taxa (apart from Picea/Larix) were present in the surroundings of the study area. The identified forest taxa are very common in the Mediterranean basin and thus the pollen-wood comparison was not able to define the location of the shipyards. Broad comparison with western Mediterranean wrecks evidenced the peculiarity of the Neapolis ships where the systematic use of both Juglans regia and Cupressus sempervirens was highlighted. Archaeological, biogeographical and archaeobotanical considerations suggest the local provenance of the ship C and constrain the possible origin area of both the ship Napoli A and Napoli B to central-southern Tyrrhenian coasts.     

Estimating meagre (Argyrosomus regius) size from otoliths and vertebrae

This study presents a method for predicting meagre (Argyrosomus regius) body size (total length) from otoliths and vertebrae recovered from archaeological sites. The method involves regression equations calculated from a reference collection of 36 meagre skeletons and 113 meagre otoliths (sagitta) and allows the simultaneous estimation of original body size and minimum number of individuals (MNI) from archaeological bone structures. We selected the following measurements to predict meagre body size: greatest dorso-ventral height, greatest mediolateral breadth, and greatest anteroposterior length of the vertebrae centra; maximum anteroposterior length, medial anteroposterior length, and dorso-ventral height of the sagitta. Our results show that the original body size of meagre can be accurately predicted from many bone measurements (r² range: 0.921–0.992). We exemplify the use of the regressions in the assessment of size variation and MNI of meagre from four Portuguese Mesolithic sites. We show that regression results provide additional insight into the significant role that this fish played in the subsistence of coastal fisher-hunter-gatherers, who targeted medium-sized animals but were also capable of acquiring rather larger specimens.     

Sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas) and banana (Musa sp.) microfossils in deposits from the Kona Field System,Island of Hawaii

Analysis of plant microfossils (pollen, phytoliths, starch grains and xylem cells) was carried out on 12 soil samples from a variety of pre-contact archaeological features in South Kona within a portion of what has been termed the Kona Field System, on the Island of Hawaii. The oldest radiocarbon ages of the sampled deposits are 1300–1625 AD and 1310–1470 AD. The pollen and phytolith evidence suggests a change from more to less trees and shrubs in the area as a result of human activity. We found phytoliths of banana (Musa sp.) leaves in most and starch grains and xylem cells of tuberous roots of c.f. sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas) in all of the samples, suggesting that the sampled features were associated with these crops and that both crops were cultivated intensively within the study area. Higher concentrations (volumetric) of starch and xylem in samples from older deposits suggest that cultivation was more intensive then. The apparent absence of starch and xylem remains of other tuberous crops archaeologically identified elsewhere in Polynesia suggests that tuberous cropping within the study area was mono-specific.     

Chemical characterisation of anthro-technosols from Bronze to Middle Age in Bologna (Italy)

The aim of this research was the understanding of a peculiarly expanded soil sequence in Bologna (i.e., Roman Bononia, Etruscan Felsina), one of the most important archaeological poles for Etruscan colonisation and settlement in northern Italy. The uppermost part of the chronological sequence dating from the Bronze Age up to medieval and modern times was analysed for the first time from geochemical and pedological viewpoints. The integration of archaeological, stratigraphical and pedological data supported by soil chemical analysis, a fundamental key for reconstructing a correct evolutionary sequence, made it possible to recognise seventeen buried Soil Units (ancient Technosols, Anthrosols and Cambisols) characterised by different kinds and degrees of intensity of anthropogenic influence. In some cases, the results show a relatively severe element concentration (Cu, Sn) mainly characterising the Iron Age (Etruscan and Villanovan) stratigraphic units, representing an ancient industrial pollution linked to local dispersal of melting activity dump products generated in near-site surrounding areas. Therefore, a comparison was possible between natural blank and anthropogenically polluted geochemical values for some local soils.     

Plant remains and amphorae from the Roman harbour under Flacius Street in Pula (Istria,Croatia)

The aim of this archaeobotanical and archaeological research is to expand knowledge about Roman diet and plant cultivation in Istria and to compare it with similar localities on the Eastern Adriatic coast. We have also tried to find some new information about maritime trade routes in the Mediterranean area in ancient times. Out of 27 samples collected from an excavated Roman port in Flacius Street in Pula, in total, 9809 plant macrofossils were recovered, identified and analysed. The results of the analysis show that most of the plant remains belong to the group of fruit trees and nuts. The most abundant are the remains of Ficus carica, Pinus pinea, Vitis vinifera subsp. vinifera, Rubus fruticosus agg. and Olea europaea subsp. europaea. These are all species that are widespread in the Mediterranean area and have likely always been consumed by the local population. The number of ruderal and weed species found is relatively high (31) in comparison with other plant categories (fruit trees and nuts; fruit collected from the wild; cereals; condiments; oil crops; vegetables and tubers; plants of fresh water environments; elements of maquis), but as they came to the site accidentally and not by targeted human activity, there are far fewer macrofossils of such plants than those of cultivated species. There were a few elements of evergreen forest vegetation and plants of aquatic habitats at the site (2 + 1), which suggests the existence of this type of vegetation in the area of the site in Roman times. Archaeobotanical comparisons of the site in Flacius Street with similar coastal Roman sites—Verige Bay on Veli Brijuni (first-fifth century ad), the port of Zaton near Nin (first-third century ad) and Caska Bay on the island of Pag (first and second century ad)—reveal considerable similarities, confirming the uniformity in nutrition and plant growth in the wider coastal area. Together with the two Roman ships, during the archaeological excavations of the Roman harbour and its layers, we collected over 2000 different archaeological artefacts out of which a large number was almost perfectly preserved. Some of the mentioned artefacts include ceramic amphorae, ceramic table- and kitchenware, ceramic lamps, different usable objects made of glass, wooden use objects, parts of ship’s equipment and other wooden tools, architecture elements from the nearby port as well as residential structures and remains of stone monuments. Because of the large amount of artefacts found at the site, the analysis of the artefacts and data processing are still in progress. As a contribution for recognizing organic remains, we isolated the amphorae whose purpose was the storage and maritime transportation of different food products and ingredients.     

The Temple of Venus (Pompeii): a study of the pigments and painting techniques

We report here on a study of 57 fragments of wall painting excavated from the Temple of Venus (Pompeii). These samples were characterised by a wide range of analytical methods. Data showed that the palette is varied, although not so broad as that found in other buildings in Pompeii, and is consistent with pigments used elsewhere in Pompeii and in the Roman Empire. It is composed of: natural earths, minerals and rare artificial pigments. Paintings are made up of thin paint layers (0.01–0.10 mm thick) strongly adhering to the underlying preparation layer. Nonetheless, in some cases thicker layers (up to 0.40 mm) were recognised, often spread on other previous painting layers. Samples were also compared with the microstratigraphic criteria developed in Piovesan (2009) to distinguish wall painting techniques. This comparison demonstrated that both fresco and lime painting techniques were adopted.     

Stable isotopes and diet at Ancient Kerma,Upper Nubia (Sudan)

Carbon and nitrogen stable isotope values were measured from bone collagen extracted from archaeological Nubian human (n = 54) and faunal (n = 61) populations from the site of Kerma, Sudan. Collagen suitable for isotopic analysis was extracted from 22 faunal and 48 human samples from the Eastern cemetery site, dated to the Middle Kerma (c. 2050–1750 BC) and Classic Kerma (c. 1750–1500 BC) periods respectively. The isotopic data indicate that the human dietary regimen included a mix of C₃ and C₄ plant-derived components, with a larger C₄ component than previously reported in archaeological Egyptian Nile Valley populations. Elevated δ¹⁵N values are attributed to consumption of dietary resources from a ¹⁵N-enriched terrestrial ecosystem. The faunal isotope data also indicate the consumption of C₃ and C₄ plants. The large range of δ¹³C values measured in both the human and faunal samples supports previous work suggesting that a significant portion of the populations buried at Kerma may have originated elsewhere, further confirming the Nile Valley as a major corridor for population movement in the region.     

Locally diagnostic phytoliths of wild rice (Zizania palustris L.) from Minnesota,USA: comparison to other wetland grasses and usefulness for archaeobotany and paleoecological reconstructions

Wild rice (Zizania spp.) is an important native grain of north-central North America, with spiritual and subsistence significance to many native peoples. Due to lack of suitable proxies, its past distribution and pattern of use are poorly known. This study demonstrates the diagnostic value of silica phytoliths from Z. palustris as a proxy tool to detect its past occurrence in a variety of paleoenvironmental and archaeological contexts. Our main findings are: 1) Dominant wetland grass species in Minnesota produce phytoliths distinct from Zizania phytoliths; 2) Closely related Leersia oryzoides produces a few Zizania-like phytolith morphotypes; however, these potential confusers can be identified based on 2-D and 3-D morphologies; 3) Z. palustris produces a wide variety of phytolith morphotypes, many of which are only found in certain parts of the plant (e.g., Inflorescence Type 1 from the spikelet); 4) Z. palustris produces 23 locally diagnostic phytolith morphotypes that can be used to determine the presence and abundance of wild rice in modern and paleo lake sediments; and 5) Wild rice phytolith Inflorescence Type 1 is the morphotype most likely to be observed in archaeological contexts, and may be unequivocally diagnostic for the genera Zizania.     

Correlating archaeological and palaeoenvironmental records using a Bayesian approach: a case study from Sutton Common,South Yorkshire,England

This paper presents a case study aimed at correlating archaeological ‘events’ (obtained from radiocarbon measurements and dendrochronology) from the site of Sutton Common with a radiocarbon-dated pollen sequence obtained from a palaeochannel deposit adjacent to the area of the main archaeological activity. It demonstrates the use of a Bayesian approach to quantifying whether the timing of palynological ‘events’ interpreted as reflecting anthropogenic impacts are likely to be associated with archaeological ‘events’. The results suggest that Bronze Age activity in the form of a mortuary enclosure and associated cremation burials are probably not contemporary with the palynological evidence for disturbance to the oak–hazel woodland in this period. Subsequent evidence for local woodland clearance and agriculture is estimated to precede the construction of the large Iron Age enclosure in 372 BC, with increases in ‘anthropogenic indicators’ following this ‘event’. The construction of the site does not appear to have had a pronounced impact on the local vegetation, with hazel the only woody taxon to show clear reductions. Despite the use of a substantial number of oak timbers in the enclosure palisade, percentages of oak remain remarkably stable. Later farming activity on the site probably post-dates the end of activity in the enclosures. The value of the methodology is discussed in relation to quantifiable and robust correlations of archaeological and palaeoenvironmental narratives of landscape and human activity.     

‘Uproot and destroy,build and plant’: legatine authority under Pope Gregory VII

Confronted with the need for scholarly criteria in properly defining the ad hoc papal institution existent under Pope Gregory VII (1073–85), this paper seeks to clarify the title, office, and jurisdiction of the eleventh-century reforming legate. Discussing the Roman origins of this office through to the twelfth century – taking into account the political, ecclesiastical and legal constraints of the period – questions are raised concerning the extent and nature of legatine authority (especially as the reformers understood it). Contemporary criteria are unclear, but modern scholars can infer some regularities from Gregory VII's Register and other contemporary sources as to how this office operated in the last quarter of the eleventh century, and ultimately, to understand more clearly how reform was being implemented in the provinces.     

Cartography of the archaeological surveys taken from an Ikonos stereo-pair: a case study of the territory of Hierapolis in Phrygia (Turkey)

The paper analyses methods and issues connected with the elaboration of Ikonos stereo high-resolution satellite images to create a large-scale cartography for archaeological research. This methodology has been used on an area of the ancient territory of Hierapolis in Phrygia (Turkey), where archaeological surveys, developed by the Italian Archaeological Mission, are in progress. In particular, the study area is situated between the modern villages of Yeniköy and Küçükdereköy, for which neither cartographies suitable for ground surveys nor aerophotogrammetrical covers were available. In this area there are a lot of archaeological remains; in particular, a large Hellenistic and Roman settlement and its necropolises, and also an old Turkish settlement, now destroyed. An Ikonos image was ortho-rectified to obtain a space-map of the entire area. It was used to extract vectorial thematic elements (modern topography, hydrology, archaeological remains and traces, etc.) for the production of maps for archaeological research in the tolerances of a 1:10,000 scale.     

Oxygen isotope seasonality in a temperate estuarine shell midden: a case study from CA-ALA-17 on the San Francisco Bay,California

Seasonality determination using stable oxygen isotope (δ¹⁸O) analyses in archaeological mollusk shell has been largely limited to aquatic settings where one of the two factors that control shell δ¹⁸O – water δ¹⁸O (or salinity) and temperature – is assumed to be constant. Open coastal marine environments reflect the former situation, and tropical estuaries constitute the latter. In an effort to expand stable isotope seasonality to an ecological setting where neither variable remains constant, we present a model of annual shell δ¹⁸O cycle of aragonite deposition derived from instrumental data on salinity and temperature from San Francisco Bay, California. The predicted range of modeled shell δ¹⁸O is consistent with observed δ¹⁸O values in prehistoric and modern shells when local conditions are considered. Measurements of δ¹⁸O taken at 0 mm and 2 mm from the terminal growth margin were made on 36 archaeological specimens of Macoma nasuta from a late Holocene hunter-gatherer site CA-ALA-17, and season of collection was inferred using the shell δ¹⁸O model. We conclude that shellfish exploitation occurred through the year with the exception of fall, which may indicate scheduling conflicts with acorn harvesting or other seasonally abundant resources elsewhere. The model supports the feasibility of stable isotope seasonality studies in temperate estuaries, provided that instrumental records are available to quantify the relevant water conditions at appropriate spatial and temporal scales.     

A short note on banana (Musa) phytoliths in Lapita,immediately post-Lapita and modern period archaeological deposits from Vanuatu

We present results of phytolith analysis of deposits from three prehistoric settlement sites in Vanuatu: the small islands of Vao and Uripiv off the north east coast of the main island of Malekula and at Mafilau on the west coast of Epi Island. Samples from Vao Island coarsely encompass the period from Lapita times (c. 3000 BP) to the present. The data from this site suggest deforestation by people, with a decrease in palms and increase in grasses. The data from the three sites show evidence of an introduced cultigen during different prehistoric periods. Banana (Musa) phytoliths were found in one recent Vao layer (500 BP-present) and in Mafilau layers, the latter representing the immediate post-Lapita period (c. 2800–2500 BP). This phytolith type was also found at Uripiv in Lapita layers (c. 3000–2700 BP). Banana phytoliths are diagnostic so their presence in archaeological deposits in Remote Oceania, outside their natural distribution, provides secure evidence of cultivation. This demonstrates the potential of this line of evidence for identifying both the cultigens transported by early colonists and subsequent plant introductions. The data provide the first direct evidence of banana cultivation at a Lapita site in Remote Oceania and support the contention that horticulture was an integral part of the Lapita Cultural Complex.     

First dendroarchaeological dates of prehistoric contexts in South America: chullpas in the Central Andes

Despite the existence of long-lived tree species with excellent tree-ring characteristics, the use of dendrochronological techniques for dating archaeological contexts has been very limited in South America. Recent research in the Bolivian Altiplano of the Central Andes has yielded a network of Polylepis tarapacana chronologies that goes back to the 13th century. This species was regularly used by local populations since pre-Columbian times as raw material for beams, lintels, hooks and other architectural features in houses, storage chambers, and sepulchers. The aim of this study is to argue in favor of the potential of P. tarapacana for providing high resolution dates of significant archaeological events during the pre-Columbian era. The chronology of chullpas (burial towers and storage chambers) in the southern Andean Altiplano is used as a case study. Growth rings from P. tarapacana have provided several centennial-length dendrochronological records including a reference regional chronology covering the last 786 years in the Central Andean highlands. Based on this long reference chronology calendar years were assigned to woody pieces from pre-Hispanic chullpas. Dendroarchaeological results are consistent with contextual evidence and most radiocarbon dates from woody samples and related archaeological items. Our results indicate that P. tarapacana has a high potential for providing annually-resolved tree-ring dates for archaeological contexts in the Altiplano since the early 13th century.     

FTIR and statistical studies on amber artefacts from three Romanian archaeological sites

In the present study Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy in the reflectance mode (FTIR-reflectance) – was performed on well preserved archaeological amber, originating from three Romanian archaeological sites of Roman and Byzantine cultures, which did not allow sampling material. Resulting spectra were subjected to multivariate data analysis (MDA) using Principal Components Analysis (PCA). In the light of the FTIR-reflectance bands of archaeological samples from the region 1275 to 1155 cm⁻¹ and 900–600 cm⁻¹ we could conclude that the samples from first two locations, Ro?ia Montan? and Nuf?ru, are made from amber of Baltic origin. In the case of the third location, Isaccea, we take into account the possibility of a mixture of raw materials, both Baltic and Romanian amber. These assertions are supported by statistical analysis and the historical context. Besides the FTIR spectra comparison or other analytical data, it is very important to correlate any information about the material (colour, conservation status, historical context, connections with other artefacts) and the statistical analysis in order to favour safe conclusions.     

First evidence of Equus asinus L. in the Chalcolithic disputes the Phoenicians as the first to introduce donkeys into the Iberian Peninsula

Two equid species have been documented in the Pleistocene of the Iberian Peninsula, the horse Equus caballus, and the Eurasian hemione Equus hydruntinus. While the former survived the Holocene–Pleistocene until now, the timing for the extinction of the latter is unclear. Scarce, fragmented archaeological remains assess the presence of small equids living in the Holocene of Iberia. Those could possibly correspond to the Eurasian hemione although unambiguous morphological identification is often not possible. With the find of an equid tooth from Leceia, a Chalcolithic fortified site in Portugal, and using both morphological and mitochondrial genome analyses, we demonstrate for the first time the presence of a new equid species in Holocene Iberia, namely a donkey (Equus asinus). Radiocarbon dating of the tooth to Cal 2340–2130, and 2080–2060 BC with 95% probability, demonstrates that donkeys were present in Iberia well before the arrival of Phoenicians in the first quarter of the first millennium BC (900–750 years BC), which were considered so far as the first who introduced donkeys in the region.     

Lost writing uncovered by laser two-photon fluorescence provides a terminus post quem for Roman colonization of Hispania Citerior

In this work, two-photon absorption fluorescence is used as a non-destructive method to detect the presence of paint upon an archaeological sample. The objective was to recover writing that, due to the discoloration caused by the passage of the time, was barely readable. The technique has been successfully applied to determine the consular date painted upon the neck of a Dressel 1A amphora found in the Roman village of Iesso (Guissona), in Catalonia. The identification of the consular date provides a terminus post quem for the foundation date for the city as well as a starting date for the Roman colonization of Hispania Citerior.     

Marine electrical resistivity tomography for shipwreck detection in very shallow water: a case study from Agropoli (Salerno,southern Italy)

A marine electric resistivity survey was carried out over a submerged beach along the Agropoli shore (Salerno, Italy) to detect buried objects of archaeological interest below the sandy seabed. We found a shipwreck, a military vessel that probably sunk during the Salerno landing operations of the allied forces in the Second World War. Resistivity data provide information on the vertical and horizontal extension of the shipwreck, which is characterized by very low calculated resistivity values (about 2–5 ohm m). Such values differ significantly from the sand and the bedrock values (5–40 ohm m). Although the presence of the shipwreck is clearly visible from geoelectric data, the joint application of electric, magnetic and multibeam bathymetric techniques reduces the ambiguities inherent in each method. As shown in the Electrical Resistivity Tomography (ERT) and confirmed by the Digital Elevation Model (obtained from the processing of bathymetric data), the shipwreck extends more than 30 m in NE–SW direction and it is about 13 m wide. The global extension of the relic is consistent with the magnetic data, that are characterized by a magnetic anomaly with an amplitude of about 1800 nT and similar dimension, as inferred from the estimation of source boundaries obtained from the computation of the analytic signal. The results of our survey encourage the use of marine geoelectrical methods for the detection of buried archaeological targets, particularly in locations where the use of seismic prospecting is not effective (e.g. very shallow water with sandy sea-bottoms). The integration of different geophysical methods allows to better define the extension, depth and thickness of buried objects, suggesting that such an approach is the most effective for underwater archaeological investigations.