The Tantura F Shipwreck, Israel

Tantura F is the first wreck excavated so far in the eastern Mediterranean dated to the beginning of the 8th century AD (the local early Islamic period), based on ¹⁴C and pottery analysis. Among the finds were the remains of about 30 ceramic vessels, two anchors, food remnants, fish-bones, a needle, a spoon and a glass vessel. Tantura F was c .15 m long and 5 m wide, and hull remains comprise keel, frames, planks, stringers, mast-step, and other internal components. Construction features clearly indicate frame-based construction, considerably earlier than it is generally thought to have been first employed.
© 2006 The Authors     

The Tantura F shipwreck: hull remains and finds—final report

The Tantura F shipwreck was discovered in 1996, and was excavated in 2004–2007. It was dated to between the mid 7th and the end of the 8th centuries AD. The remains comprised the bottom of the hull, including the lower part of the turn of the bilge on both sides and the beginning of the upward curvature at the bow and the stern. It was constructed based on frames. Among the finds were two anchors, 30 ceramic items, fish remains, food remnants, matting and ropes. The finds are of eastern Mediterranean and Egyptian origins. The Tantura F shipwreck is evidence of frame‐first construction in the period. It is also evidence of a trade route along the Levant coast and of the existence of a settlement in the Dor region at that time.     

The technology and production of glazed ceramics from Middle Islamic Jerash,Jordan

Jerash in northern Jordan was, despite a focus on its classical heritage, also active in the Middle Islamic period, but little is known about actual developments during this period. This study represents the first study on the Middle Islamic glazed pottery from the site using scanning electron microscopy energy‐dispersive spectrometry (SEM‐EDS) and thin‐section petrography. The results show that two production traditions existed, each with different provenances. The local production is characterized by a non‐calcareous ceramic body and the use of a high‐lead glaze coloured with iron and copper oxides, whereas the turquoise‐glazed samples, likely imported from Mesopotamia, have a calcareous ceramic body and alkali or alkali‐lead glaze.     

SIENESE ‘ARCHAIC’ MAJOLICA: A TECHNOLOGICAL STUDY OF CERAMIC BODIES AND COATINGS*

The aim of the present study is to reconstruct the production technology of Sienese ‘archaic’ majolica in the early decades of the 14th century ad . The integration of archaeological data with archived data revealed the presence of numerous workshops, suggesting that the Sienese tradition of majolica production was well developed up until the end of the 16th century. Sixty‐seven uncoated and coated waste products were analysed. The ceramic bodies were examined by OM, XRDp, SEM–EDS, XRF, ICP–OES, ICP–MS and INAA. The coatings (enamels and glazes) were analysed by SEM–EDS and Raman microspectroscopy. The results showed that ceramics were rejected due to poor control of the firing temperature (technological wastes), faulty production technology (wastes of uncertain classification) and accidents (post‐firing wastes). Finally, the analyses revealed extreme homogeneity of the ceramic bodies, indicating the continued use of the same raw material over the whole period studied.     

古代钢铁制品中的浮凸组织初步研究

为研究钢铁制品中浮凸组织产生的原因,对14件取自不同地方、属于不同时期的具有浮凸组织的样品利用金相组织鉴定、扫描电镜能谱分析、化学分析和显微硬度测定等方法进行了研究。结果表明：金相组织观察发现浮凸组织与夹杂物和铁素体晶粒间界有一定的关系,并存在有不同的形貌,其显微硬度均比附近基体高;成分分析表明有浮凸组织的样品磷含量要比没有浮凸组织的样品磷含量高一个数量级。有浮凸组织样品内部磷含量的分布也不均匀。这些结果说明,浮凸组织的产生主要原因是矿石中的磷在冶炼过程中进入铁中,而在随后的脱碳退火、炒炼和冷、热加工过程中均不能有效地脱去;同时,固溶在铁中的磷与铁形成薄膜阻止晶粒间界长大、或在埋葬条件下长期时效引起的晶界移动而产生了浮凸组织。     

Archaeometallurgical study of the brass cases from the Akko 1 shipwreck

The Akko 1 shipwreck is the remains of an eastern Mediterranean brig built in the first quarter of the nineteenth century, discovered in Akko harbour, Israel. During the underwater excavations (2006–2008), 158 brass cases were found, mainly between midships and the aft extremity of the shipwreck. It is suggested that they were used for artillery quills. The aim of this investigation is to determine the composition, microstructure and properties of these brass cases in order to understand their manufacturing process and to propose their possible dating and manufacturing location, and to verify their use. An archaeometallurgical analysis of selected brass cases was performed, including optical microscopy, microhardness tests and SEM including EDS. The results show that the collection was made of brass containing about 30 wt% zinc. The uniform thickness and the microstructure of the cases indicate that all artifacts were basically produced of rolled sheets and the cases were hand-made using simple tools. The metallurgical investigation suggests that they were manufactured during the first half of the nineteenth century. Combined with the archaeological evidence and the historical background, this supports the assumption that Akko 1 was a naval auxiliary vessel which was in Akko harbour circa 1840.     

Stone anchors from the Mediterranean coasts of Anatolia, Turkey: underwater surveys and archaeometrical investigations

This study is mainly based on the expeditions and underwater study of stone anchors from the Cilician coast, Bodrum Museum of Underwater Archaeology and the Kaš Uluburun wreck. The stone anchors found on the Cilician coast are very similar to eastern Mediterranean stone anchors with respect to shape and characteristics. The stone anchors from BMUA and KUW were examined by thin section and XRD analysis. They are made of volcanic, sedimentary and metamorphic rocks. The study indicates that the anchors are similar to others found in the Mediterranean.     

ARCHAEOMETALLURGICAL CHARACTERIZATION OF HELLENISTIC METAL OBJECTS: THE CONTRIBUTION OF THE BRONZE OBJECTS FROM RISHON LE‐ZION (ISRAEL)*

An archaeometallurgical analysis is presented of 14 bronze artefacts retrieved from an Early Hellenistic–period farmstead in controlled archaeological excavations at Rishon Le‐Zion, Israel, and dated to the first quarter of the third century bce according to coins and pottery vessels. The bronze assemblage includes a needle, pins, spatulas and fibulas. The aims of the research are to determine the composition, microstructure and manufacturing process of these artefacts, and to discover their place of production. This will provide a better understanding of Hellenistic technological abilities and material culture. The examination included optical microscopy, microhardness, SEM including EDS, and XRD. The results show that the collection consists of Cu–Sn binary alloys, with evidence for a controlled alloying process and the absence of recycling. Furthermore, the microstructure of the objects indicates that all artefacts were produced by a cold‐working process. Moreover, the manufacturing process of the rectangular cross‐section fibulas included sophisticated joining techniques of copper and iron.     

AN ARCHAEOMETALLURGICAL STUDY OF 13TH‐CENTURY ARROWHEADS AND BOLTS FROM THE CRUSADER CASTLE OF ARSUF/ARSUR

Selected iron arrowheads and bolts retrieved from the destruction layer of the Crusader castle of Arsur/Arsuf, which was taken down by the Mamluk army (headed by Baybars) in late April 1265, were studied. Being the only site within the boundaries of the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem that has thus far yielded more than 1200 iron arrowheads, an archaeometallurgical characterization was performed. The aim of this research was to study the warfare methods and manufacturing technologies used by the Mamluk and Crusader armies. Examination included optical microscopy, SEM and SEM–EDS, XPS and microhardness tests. Analysis was performed on both the metallic iron and iron oxides. Ferrous wooden ‘fossils’, which were found on and within the bolts, were dendroarchaeologically tested. The microstructure analyses show that the weapons were made of wrought iron. These results are correlated with the function of the weapons. The different microstructures of the arrowheads and the bolts indicate dissimilar manufacturing processes. The graphitization of the ropes on the bolts and the oxide phases on their surfaces both provide evidence of high‐temperature fire. The ropes support the archaeological findings that these devices were used by the Mamluks to set the Crusader castle on fire.     

The Enigma of Tantura B: Historical Documentation and the Lack of Circumstantial Documentary Evidence

Tantura B is by far the first early Islamic shipwreck to be discovered off the Palestinian coast. Scientific evidence indicates that this vessel sank some time between the mid-8th and the mid-9th centuries. Neither archaeological remains nor historical sources can ascertain its exact function and origin due to the lack of circumstantial documentary evidence. However, it has been argued that the vessel could be either a coaster, capable of entering rivers or estuaries, or a support vessel operating in the Arab fleet, i.e. , it may have had been used for either military or civil purposes, or both.
© 2005 The Nautical Archaeology Society     

The 7th–9th Century Tantura E Shipwreck,Israel: construction and reconstruction

The Tantura E shipwreck was discovered in Tantura lagoon, Israel, in a water depth of 2.8 m, covered by 1 m of sand. It was a coaster that plied the Levant coast, dated to the 7th–9th centuries CE. It was recorded under water, but several components were studied on land, as well as the finds. The hull is of frame‐based construction, with flat floor timbers and a sharp turn of the bilge. The archaeological evidence, as well as modern design tools and regulations, suggests that Tantura E was c.12.5 m long, of 25 tonnes displacement, and could load c.17.5 tonnes.     

Performance of Wall to Diaphragm Anchors for Use in Seismic Upgrade of Heritage Masonry Buildings

Performance of wall to diaphragm (WD) anchors in heritage unreinforced masonry (URM) buildings during the recent New Zealand earthquake series is commented on, detailing typical failure modes. Current building code provisions for the design of masonry anchors are discussed and overview of an associated experimental program investigating the effectiveness of a relatively new type of retrofit WD anchors is presented. A total of 40 anchors were tested for pull out capacity (POC), of which 30 were installed in salvaged heritage material assemblages and 10 were tested in-situ at a heritage URM building. The POC of anchors ranged from 13.01 kN to 23.12 kN when installed in a heritage URM wall and between 9.54 kN and 12.16 kN when driven from side into two consecutive floor joists of a heritage timber diaphragm. Investigated also were the effects of embedment length, installation quality, anchor location, condition of masonry, and condition of substrate materials on anchor performance.     

First Finding of Early Medieval Iron Slags in Sardinia (Italy): A Geochemical–Mineralogical Approach to Insights into Ore Provenance and Work Activity

At Santa Filitica, a Roman settlement in north‐western Sardinia occupied until the ninth century ad , archaeological excavations have found the remnants of a furnace consisting of a semi‐circular base made of stony slabs and tiles bound with clay. The furnace is attached to a wall of Roman age. Layers of the sixth century ad , bearing several variously oxidized slags, were found close to the furnace. These findings first testify to an ironworks in Sardinia, within a well‐defined context. XRPD and SEM–EDS mineralogical and textural analyses suggest that the slags derive from a bloomery and smithing work that was the first evidence of this type documented in Sardinia during the Early Middle Ages. Chemical analyses (performed with ICP and INAA) of rare earth elements and trace elements in two slags and in two Sardinian iron deposits allow some conclusions to be drawn on the local provenance of the ore. Our comparison of the Sardinian findings and some slags representative of archaeological smelting sites at the front of Elba island—the largest and longest lived iron‐working sites in the Mediterranean—also improves the methodology with which iron slags derived from different ores are compared.     

A group of 20 stone anchors from the waters of Dwarka, on the Gujarat Coast, India

A large number of stone anchors were discovered in a water depth of 10–14 m off Dwarka during the 1998–99 season. The seabed near the anchors consists of a ledge with an average height of 1 in. Several anchors were found trapped between the rocks suggesting an anchorage. Twenty stone anchors of three types were loacted in a submerged channel on the southern side of the site. The grapnel type of anchor is associated with Indo-Arab trade between the 8th and 16th centuries AD. The triangular or composite anchors have a date ranging from 2500 BC to the Modern Period. Therefore, the dating of these anchors at Dwarka is a matter of concern and is discussed.     

A New Type of Composite Anchor Dated to the Fatimid-Crusader Period from the Dead Sea, Israel

Two composite anchors of a kind not hitherto identified, each composed of a re-used ashlar block, a wooden shank, two arms and a rope, were discovered recently on the Dead Sea shoreline. Two additional anchor weights of identical type were found in the same region. The two well-preserved anchors were dated to the Fatimid-Crusader period. The shank and the arms were made from local tree species: Christ thorn and tamarisk, and both ropes of date-palm.
© 2008 The Authors     

TECHNOLOGY OF PRODUCTION OF GHAZNAVID GLAZED POTTERY FROM BUST AND LASHKAR‐I BAZAR (AFGHANISTAN)

Fifteen fragments of glazed pottery were studied by scanning electron microscopy coupled with energy‐dispersive X‐ray analysis (SEM–EDS). The fragments, dated from between the 11th and the 12th centuries, are part of a group excavated at ancient Bust and Lashkar‐i Bazar (southern Afghanistan) and belonging to the International Museum of Ceramics in Faenza. All the samples are characterized by highly calcareous bodies, and all of them but one is coated with a transparent lead glaze; the last fragment is, instead, coated with a turquoise opaque lead–alkali glaze. With three exceptions, the studied fragments show underglaze decorations featuring white, red, green or black motifs applied on to a white, red or black engobe; one of the remaining glazes is applied on to a monochrome white slip and the other two directly on to the ceramic body. Optical microscopy and SEM images show that engobes and decorations were obtained by deposition of differently coloured clayey slips, the composition of which was characterized by EDS analyses. In particular, black engobes and decorative motifs were obtained by recourse to manganese and iron compounds or to chromium, magnesium and iron compounds; it appears that both possibilities could be exploited for obtaining different decorative motifs on the same object.     

Visigothic Jewellery: A Technical Study of Glass Used as Gems in Belt Buckles from a Spanish Necropolis

In this work, we studied coloured and colourless glass used as gems in Visigothic buckles possibly originating from the necropolises of Torredonjimeno, Duraton or Castilltierra in Spain. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) with energy‐dispersive analysis (EDS) and observations made with an optical microscope in reflected and transmission mode were performed in order to establish the composition, origin of the colour and decay process of these glass pieces. The chemical analysis of ancient glass can provide relevant information regarding the manufacturing approach used during a specific period. The results revealed the presence of various transition metal elements used as chromophore elements, as well as some metallic backing foils used to improve the colour of pieces of almost colourless glass.     

Toggles and Sails in the Ancient World: Rigging Elements Recovered from the Tantura B Shipwreck, Israel

Excavation of the 9th-century AD shipwreck B in Tantura Lagoon, Israel, yielded four toggles, numerous rope fragments, and three pierced wooden spatulate objects believed to be associated with the ship's rigging. In the first half of the article, the toggles are described and compared to a corpus of similar devices found on both land and shipwreck sites. The spatulate devices are tentatively identified as spill-toggles, pierced for attaching a trip-line. The second half of the article traces the textual and iconographical evidence for toggles and sail types––in particular, the lateen––in the ancient Mediterranean, and their possible association.
© 2008 The Author     

Middle Bronze Age metallurgy in the Levant: evidence from the weapons of Byblos

This paper constitutes a synthesis of a technological investigation on copper base alloy weapons from Byblos. Most of the weapons are typical of the Middle Bronze Age in the Levant. Methods such as metallographic examination and chemical analyses by EDS were used to identify the different stages of the chaîne opératoire used in the making of these weapons. The results reveal precise information regarding the production of several types of weapons such as the type and performance of the moulds used for casting and the deformation process. Furthermore, these results highlight the contribution of economic and cultural factors in the choice of components in a copper base alloy recipe. Finally, the use of silver–copper brazes for joining copper base alloy objects is recorded for the first time for the period and region concerned.     

A social analysis of irrigation in Al-Andalus: Nazari Granada (13th-15th centuries)

This paper concerns the outer urban area of the town of Granada in the Nasrid period (13th–15th centuries). Most agricultural land was irrigated because of the characteristic drought of the Mediterranean climate, and also because of the needs of certain crops which had been brought by the Arabs from monsoon climates. Water distribution followed patterns that were not only hydrographical and topographical but also social. In this way, social structure was reflected in land irrigation, and even its evolution can be seen in the way in which this distribution changes. It evolved from a family criterion to a topographic one, and finally to the buying and selling of allotted times independent of the land itself. Furthermore, the example of one of the acequias in this irrigated land shows that the allotted times coincided with the Islamic prayer schedule, so that the Moslem call to prayer served also to divide the day for the peasant workers.