“二十一条”与日本侵华战争

日本自1915年提出对华“二十一条”并逼签“大四条约”以后,虽然在一战结束后被迫归还了中国的山东主权,但又拒绝了中国政府的废约要求,继续坚持并努力实现其既定要求。日本对此可谓是念念在兹,必欲得之。九一八事变后,日本政府首次向南京政府提出了要求承认其“二十一条”与“大四条约”的要求,作为双方直接谈判的重要条件之一;伪满政权成立后,日本先以“日满密约”、再以《日满议定书》,将“二十一条”要求中的“满蒙权益”完全确立下来并加以继续扩大。华北事变期间,日本外交当局在发起的与南京政府的两次谈判中,无论广田三原则还是具体要求,均包括了甚至于超出其“二十一条”中未得之要求。发动全面侵华战争以后,日军在华北、华中地区扶植傀儡政权,并派驻大量日本顾问进行控制;汪精卫集团投敌之后,日本通过“日汪密约”与《日华条约》的签订,继续巩固与扩大了包括“二十一条”在内的更多侵华要求。“二十一条”不但是日本发动十五年侵华战争的“远因”之一,也是其侵华政策要求的重要内容,它亦随着日本的战败投降而告结束。     

张作霖与“二十一条”交涉

袁世凯与日本签订的“二十一条”涉及东北条款甚多 ① ,谈判期间 ,北洋政府征询东三省意见 ,时任民国二十七师师长的“张作霖独排众议 ,表示强烈反对并拒绝军官会议的决议 ,也不参加主和派的行列” ,并致电北洋政府 :“中日交涉丝毫不可让步 ,如交涉破裂 ,愿率全师进行决战 ,驱逐日寇 ,否则一死殉国。”② “二十一条”签订后 ,由于中国人民的反抗和列强对日本独占中国阴谋的反对 ,并未能立即执行。 1 91 6年 4月 ,张作霖出任奉天督军兼省长后 ,面对日本要求在东北兑现“二十一条”的外交攻势 ,仍然持抵制态度。对他的这种态度 ,以往著述极…     

半生的忏悔

1915年,日本提出灭亡中国的“二十一条”,当时袁世凯为称帝向日本妥协,指令北洋政府外交部签约。负责签字的外交总长陆征祥（1871～1949）招来国内一片唾骂声,而他也为此付出了半生的忏悔,成为中国历史上第一位“修道士外长”。     

对华二十一条与日英关系

(一)对华二十一条的国际反应对于日本对华二十一条的提出,“列强”的反应是不一样的。美国向英国、法国、俄国三国提出:应共同向日本和中国提议须谋求和平解决,布莱安(William Jennings Brayan)国务卿则向日本国总理大臣大隈重信送交了要求慎重解决的个人信件;而且,当中国刚一表示接受,在四天后的5月13日、5月17日,又两次向日本送达了“不承认通知”(NonRecongnition),继续表明了强硬态度。但是,英国不同,它固然对于日本竟将在中国占有超     

沙俄在日本对华“二十一条”交涉中的态度

随着第一次世界大战的爆发,欧洲列强把注意力集中到硝烟弥漫的西方战场,它们忙于相互厮杀,无暇东顾,暂时放松了对中国的侵略。在这种情况下,日本乘机而来,于一九一五年一月十八日向中国提出了“二十一条”要求,图谋一举独霸中国。日本帝国主义这一新的侵略行动,引起西方列强的密切注意。它们从各自的利益出发,对“二十一条”作出了各不相同的反应。沙皇俄国在一九○五年败于日本以后,一贯奉行同日本合作侵华的方针,三次日俄密约的签订,就是这一方针的具体化。这     

“二十一条”最后通牒的时限

1915年1月18日,日本驻华公使日置益晋见袁世凯,当面递交了日本旨在独占中国的“二十一条”要求。此后,由于国内反日爱国运动日益高涨,加之其他原因,中日交涉一路坎坷,谈判无结果。4月26日,日本政府提出修正案,5月7日,以“最后通牒”的方式,辅之以武力恫吓,胁迫袁世凯就范。     

东亚视角下的中日战争研究

正一近代日本的对外侵略始于19世纪70年代的侵台战争和"琉球处分"。不久后的1895年,甲午战争结束,中日签订《马关条约》,台湾全岛及其附属各岛屿、澎湖列岛沦为日本殖民地。1905年日俄战争后,尤其是1910年韩半岛沦为日本殖民地,日本对"满洲"(中国东北——作者注)的侵略正式开始。随后,日本对中国的侵略意图就更加赤裸裸地表现出来。1915年日本驻华公使向袁世凯政府递交了二十一条要求的文件,史称中日"二十一条",正是日本妄图将中国变为自己殖民地的     

恽代英著译系年要录

恽代英同志是中国共产党早期的活动家和宣传家,中国青年运动的先驱和领袖。他原籍江苏武进,1895年8月12日出生于武昌。1915年当日本提出灭亡中国的“二十一条”时,他正在武昌     

虞洽卿率团赴日争主权

正1915年5月9日,日本法西斯政权以武力相威胁,逼迫“中华民国大总统”袁世凯签订《二十一条》不平等条约,欲将中国的政治、军事、财政及领土完全置于日本的控制之下,把整个中国变为日本的殖民地。条约签订后,激起全国人民的强烈愤慨,全国教育联合会将这一天定为国耻日,称“五九国耻”。丧权辱国的《二十一条》直至1945年日本在第二次世界大战中战败后才彻底废除。在此30年间,中国民间人士从未停止过与日本帝国主义取缔该不     

是他，抛出了点燃“五四运动＂的火炬

在1919年的巴黎和会上,由于日本态度强硬,西方诸国最后商谈的结果竟然是：日本从德国手中接过对中国山东的控制权。4月30日,有一个人在北京接到了梁启超从巴黎发给他的电报,得知了中国外交失败的消息。他怀着极为复杂的心情,于5月l日写就《外交警报敬告闲人》的文章,并于当晚送到了《晨报》报馆。     

Telling small stories: spaces of knowledge and the practice of geography

This article examines how the practice of learning geography, and the arenas in which knowledge-making takes place, can be usefully positioned within changing histories of the discipline. It contends that networks of action – understood through the intersection of social sites, subjects and sources – present a conceptual framework and narrative focus for the re-consideration of specific episodes from geography's past. The interventions made here are informed and illustrated by a 'small story' about the doing of geography. Based on different personal accounts, the story revives a series of events, encounters, dialogues and images dating back to the winter of 1951 at Glenmore Lodge, Scotland. This educational institution in the Cairngorm mountains offered children from urban areas the opportunity to learn field studies and the skills of 'outdoor citizenship'. Initially, the focus falls on Margaret Jack, a 14-year-old field-course participant. Her learning experiences are traced through personal letters, a diary and a field journal dating from that time, and her recent recollections of this event. Margaret's account dovetails with the story of her field studies instructor, Robin Murray. Robin's role is traced through his learning experiences as a geography undergraduate at Aberdeen University, and the recent recollections of Catriona Murray, his wife.     

Das Wissen der Schulden. Recht,Kulturtechnik und Alltagserfahrung im liberalen Kapitalismus

The Knowledge of Debt: Law, Media Technique, and Everyday Experience in Liberal Capitalism. Performing an object such as ‘the economy’ hinges on practices of formatting knowledge. The article proposes to look at such instituting moments in connection with social conflicts over the legitimate rules of exchange. This is exemplified by way of recounting the story of the codification of Swiss bankruptcy law in 1889. In order to homogenize the legal procedures of debt collection and bankruptcy, two subject categories were instituted: ‘merchants’ and ‘non-merchants’. These different categories were thought to account for the diverging temporalities and spaces of credit exchange in everyday economic life. The introduction of the commercial register, a media-technical apparatus, enabled a formal distinction between ‘merchants’ and ‘non-merchants’. However, this boundary was contested and proved to be porose.     

Two radiocarbon dates for freshwater shells from hierakonpolis: Archaeological and geological interpretations

Shells of two species of freshwater bivalve (Unio willcocksi Bullen Newton and Etheria elliptica Lamarck) from the predynastic Gerzean (Nagada II) Decorated Tomb at Hierakonpolis, Egypt have given dates of 5000±90 bp for the tomb, and 12,900±120 bp for an episode of Nile terrace accumulation (correlated here with the Sahaba-Darau aggradation event). The archaeological and geological significance of these results is discussed, together with an outline of problems associated with radiocarbon dating of shell. Comparisons are made with the few other radiocarbon dates available for the Predynastic period in Egypt and possible reasons for the presence of shells in the tomb are considered.     

Some chronological implications of a fossil molluscan assemblage from a neolithic site at Brook,Kent, England

The later post-glacial history of a valley in the chalk escarpment near Brook, Kent, is described, based on molluscan stratigraphy, archaeological evidence and radio-carbon dating. Differences in size and colour banding, respectively, of fossil and living representatives of two species of land snails, Pomatias elegans (Müller) and Cepaea nemoralis (L.), are correlated with climatic change during the post-glacial period. The problems of the use of fossil shells of these species as samples for radiocarbon dating are discussed.     

China's Dynamic Industrial Sector: The Internet Industry

A Singapore-based economic geographer explores and analyzes the spatially uneven evolution of the Internet industry in China, arguing that the country's immense regional disparity in the provision of Internet services is best explained by the interplay of place- and path-dependence. The author demonstrates how the highly uneven regional endowments in relevant industrial and entrepreneurial resources have led to the substantial and persistent regional imbalance within China's emerging "new economy." His initial survey of the country's 100 leading Internet content providers (firms), identified from a listing of ca. 11,700 commercial websites, is selectively augmented to reflect an increase of over 70 million Internet users in 2007, reaching a total of 253 million in June 2008, and thus overtaking the United States as the world's largest Internet market. Journal of Economic Literature, Classification Numbers: L10, L86, O30. 6 figures, 1 table, 53 references.     

The 1911 International Exposition in Rome: architecture, archaeology, and national identity

This paper discusses the 1911 International Exposition in Rome and illustrates how this patriotic celebration of the fiftieth anniversary of the Italian Sate utilized symbolic landscapes of architecture and archaeology to promote nationalist sentiments of italianità and romanità centered on the young capital of Rome. Through modern art exhibitions at the Valle Giulia, scientific conferences at the Castel Sant’Angelo, archaeological exhibits on the Roman Empire in the Baths of Diocletian, and regional Italian pavilions in the Piazza d’Armi, exposition officials offered a complex representation of Italian national identity that was modern yet ancient, cosmopolitan yet bucolic, European yet regional, and imperial yet developing.     

The Rise and Fall of Alexander the Great – The Need for Medical Analysis: Reply to Commentaries

Alexander the Great died in 323 B.C. from an unknown cause. By elucidating the nature of his death, we can better interpret various aspects of Alexandrian history. Alexander’s death may have ensued from the sequelae of a congenital scoliotic syndrome. It would therefore be of significance to note that one of the greatest leaders in history who conquered much of the then known world may have been suffering from a physical disability.     

Hospital Drama: Visual Theatres of the Medical Rendezvous from Asylum to Hospital with Reference to Specific Works by Anna Furse

Abstract

This paper is informed by Furse’s practice as a theatre maker in two fields of output that are connected by two factors: first, the presence of the woman patient — hysteric/subfertile respectively — within the clinical gaze; second, the significance of the womb to each pathology. In the treatment of each (explored in Furse’s theatre), lens based technologies play their part, whilst the cultural and medical can be seen to have overlapped to produce specific meaning with regard to Her body and its spectacularity. The article presents an overview of some of the key issues in precisely how the woman’s body becomes spectacular within this prosthetic medical gaze and how the medical — and theatrically designed spaces to represent these — become meaningful and potent proxemics that in turn inform medical/ theatrical spectatorship. Overarching nineteenth-century protocols at the Salpêtrière Hospital in Paris (where Furse’s Augustine (Big Hysteria) is set) to contemporary imaging technologies used in the treatment of subfertility with Assisted Reproduction Technologies (the topic of her Art of A.R.T. projects), it examines the way in which photography develops through cinema to X-Ray, ultrasound and then 3D/4D ultrasound to ‘capture’ the woman’s body in ways by which she becomes muted and exposed. These occular technologies that extend the gaze, first to an exterior subject and then, eventually, traversing the flesh without knife, lend specific performativity to the ‘patient’ women, within the context of hysterias and reproductive impairments respectively. Finally, issues of suspension of disbelief are addressed. The spectator’s faith in the screen-based image of Her spectacular body is interrupted in Furse’s work, which is also keenly interested in the effect of such imagery on the woman’s sense of Self. The historical and cultural leaps in this article argue that there is indeed a trajectory through the history of medical imaging since the first application of photography to anatomy to the more advanced scoping technologies of medical imaging today, and that in each era, the production of these images remain fraught with cultural implications.     

The Death of Alexander the Great – A Spinal Twist of Fate

Alexander the Great died in 323 B.C. from an unknown cause. Physical depictions of this historical figure reveal the likelihood of a cervical scoliotic deformity. This is substantiated with the medical history and is correlated with his untimely death. For the first time, it is concluded that Alexander’s death may have ensued from the sequelae of a congenital scoliotic syndrome.