Civil War Iron and the H.L. Hunley Iron Ballast

At the beginning of the American Civil War in 1861, the Union greatly outpaced the Confederacy in industrial manufacturing capabilities. The Confederacy's economy prior to the conflict was largely based on agriculture, and the Southern states lacked the facilities and skilled labourers to produce iron on the scale necessary to compete with the Union. The possibility of importing products was greatly diminished when President Lincoln instituted a naval blockade around major Southern ports, limiting the amount of cargo that could be imported from Europe. Consequently, the Confederacy was forced to adapt ironworks to wartime purposes. Despite these adaptations, the Confederacy suffered from iron shortages throughout the war. This paper uses the iron ballast found on the Confederate submarine H.L. Hunley as a case study for the manufacturing processes, labour relationships and social significance of iron production and usage in the Confederacy.     

H. L. Hunley Revealed: documentation,deconcretion, and recent developments in the investigation of an American Civil War submarine from 1864

Since 2014, the conservation staff at Clemson University's Warren Lasch Conservation Center in Charleston, South Carolina have been removing the concretion from the hull of H. L. Hunley, an American Civil War submarine lost 1864. In parallel, the archaeological team has been documenting the condition of the hull, the concretion layers, and the hull features revealed by the deconcretion process. This involved photography, direct measurements, and 3D scanning. This article will discuss the strategy for recording the concretion, the techniques used to document the newly revealed hull and its unique features, and the preliminary analysis of their archaeological significance.     

Late Silurian trace fossils from the Melbourne Formation,Studley Park,Victoria, southeastern Australia

An ichnoassemblage of 10 ichnospecies is described for the first time from the Late Silurian Melbourne Formation at Studley Park, Victoria, southeastern Australia. The ichnofauna is preserved in a typical deep-water turbidite succession of alternating thin- to thick-bedded sandstone and thin- to medium-bedded mudrocks. Trace fossils observed within the study site have been assigned to three main ichnofacies. Ichnofacies 1 is best developed on the linguoid-rippled upper surface of thin sandstone beds and includes Laevicyclus, Aulichnites, Nereites, Helminthoidichnites, small Chondrites and possible Zoophycos. Ichnofacies 2 is very similar to Ichnofacies 1 in ichnospecies composition but instead contains large forms of Chondrites together with other thin burrow types usually poorly preserved and in very low abundance compared with Ichnofacies 1. Ichnofacies 3 is preserved mainly as casts on the underside of medium- to thick-bedded turbiditic sandstones, and has a very low diversity, with Planolites being the most common trace. A detailed analysis of the ichnofabrics and tiering structures of these ichnofacies suggest that Ichnofacies 1 and 3 represent ‘simple tiering’, in contrast to Ichnofacies 2, which is more characteristic of ‘complex tiering’. Despite the differences in ichnospecies composition and ichnofabrics between the three recognized ichnofacies, the collective ichnoassemblage from the study site can be assigned confidently to the Nereites ichnofacies and is, therefore, interpreted to have formed in a distal submarine fan environment of lower bathyal to abyssal depth. Further, it is possible to recognize two main subenvironments within this deep-sea setting to account for the differences between the ichnofacies. Ichnofacies 1 and 2 are interpreted to represent a typical Nereites ichnofacies located on a level basin floor subenvironment of relatively low energy conditions at the distal end of a submarine fan deposit. In comparison, Ichnofacies 3 is dominated by Planolites with rare other facies-crossing trace fossil forms, and lacks Nereites. It is, therefore, best interpreted as representing a relatively high-energy environment, possibly a distributary channel near the distal end of the submarine fan system.     

In situ corrosion studies on the submarine Resurgam: A preliminary assessment of her state of preservation

Abstract

The submarine Resurgam was the world's first mechanically powered submarine, built in 1879 and lost in 1880 off the north coast of Wales. She was discovered 116 years later in 1996 and as part of an initial survey the corrosion characteristics and state of preservation of the hull were investigated.

The results showed that the hull was actively corroding, although the corrosion mechanism was such that the corrosion products formed were likely to be of a protective nature. The present corrosion rate of the wrought-iron hull of the submarine was hard to quantify based on established means, as the profile of 116 years of corrosion products had not been retained over the entire hull due to spalling of the corrosion products. Where the concretion profile was retained it was possible to calculate an average corrosion rate of 0.1 mm per year. This, coupled with the knowledge of the corrosion rate of freshly exposed wrought iron in sea water, enabled a ‘worst case’ corrosion rate of between 0.1–0.2 mm per year to be estimated.

Two arrays of sacrificial anodes were attached to the hull to test the feasibility of using this method to slow the corrosion rate and stabilize the submarine In situ. It is too early to say how successful these will be in the long term, yet initial results were encouraging as the corrosion potential was seen to shift to a more cathodic and thus less corrosive potential after their attachment.     

Shipwreck Evidence from Kilwa,Tanzania

This article reports on the artefacts and environment of marine ballast and pottery sites identified through inter‐tidal and underwater survey around Kilwa, Tanzania, one of the most important medieval sultanates along the east African coast. An inter‐tidal site on the limestone fringing reef on the approaches to Kilwa Kisiwani Harbour and an underwater site within the harbour have been dated from associated pottery to c.8th–10th century and the 13th–16th century respectively. The presence of exotic basalt ballast is discussed as an indicator of wreck‐sites.     

Electoral politics in the Australian Journal of Political Science: A review

Australia’s constant experimentation with electoral system design, and its effects on voter behaviour, have been consistent themes in the Australian Journal of Political Science and its predecessor, Politics, for half a century. This article examines this research in the context of three areas: electoral institutions; election campaigns; and voter behaviour. Three distinct stages in the research are identified, starting with basic fact-gathering, then progressing to the application of rigorous methods and evidence to real-world questions. In the third stage, scholarly attention has been devoted to placing Australia within a comparative framework. An underlying theme in the research is Australian exceptionalism in electoral politics.     

Marine Quaternary dinoflagellate cysts of Australia,Papua-New Guinea,New Zealand and the Southern Ocean: a review

Dinoflagellate cysts are widespread in Australian, Papua-New Guinea, New Zealand and Southern Ocean Pleistocene and Recent marine sediments. They occur in estuaries and deltas as well as on the continental shelf and in ocean basins. They have proven invaluable in palaeoecology for the interpretation of changing temperature, salinity and distance from shore in particular. These changes have also been used to examine climate change in Quaternary sequences. A small number of First Appearance Datums (FADs) and Last Appearance Datums (LADs) within this time period allows only limited biostratigraphic definition. LADs within the Pleistocene of southern Australia include Achomosphaera ramulifera and Spiniferites rubinus. Introduction within the past 50 years of several taxa, such as Gymnodinium catenatum and Gymnodinium microreticulatum, has been attributed to ballast water import.     

Archaeology of a Naval Battlefield: H. L. Hunley and USS Housatonic

The American Civil War shipwrecks H. L. Hunley and USS Housatonic have been the focus of intensive archaeological investigations since the discovery of Hunley in 1995. H. L. Hunley , the world's first successful combat submarine, sank the Union blockader USS Housatonic in 1864, but sank immediately afterwards. In work done prior to the recovery of Hunley in 2000, site-formation processes for both vessels were a primary research focus—a necessary precursor to identifying battlefield behaviour. This paper presents research on the Hunley / Housatonic Naval Engagement Site, where both wrecks are treated as complementary components of a single battlefield site.
© 2006 The Authors     

Anchors in a Three-Decker World

This paper focuses on anchors as links between two worlds. It examines medieval legends first, starting with mirabilia which link ships in the sky to the earth, then goes on to study those legends which link the surface of the sea to a submarine world. In tracing the evolution and interrelationships of these sets, the pivotal legend is shown to be one in which a man is lured to a submarine monastery. The remainder of the paper focuses on modern accounts of similar legends. Those involving ships in the sky and cloudland themes are instanced first. After a brief look at legends of anchors blocking submarine fairy paths, the final section takes up the lining theme in the modern context. The emphasis here is on a legend localised in Kerry in which a woman from the sea uses an anchor to trap her man.     

PANTELLERIAN WARE: A COMPREHENSIVE ARCHAEOMETRIC REVIEW*

Pantellerian ware is a Late Roman cooking ware whose production centre was established on the island of Pantelleria by the pioneering research of Fulford and Peacock almost 20 years ago ( Peacock 1982 ; Fulford and Peacock 1984 ). Archaeological and archaeometric studies carried out by the authors of the present contribution during the past four years have aimed to fully characterize this ceramic class. Recurrent ceramic forms, their distribution over time and space, their petrographic characteristics and their chemical identity, as well as possible raw materials and their technological properties, were considered. The present paper is a comprehensive review of this archaeometric work and aims to establish a ‘reference group’. Using a representative number of samples of Pantellerian ware that were recently discovered in the island through archaeological field surveys or surface and submarine excavations, it was possible to characterize in detail the compositional variability of this ware in terms of chemistry and petrography. Furthermore, the physical properties of this ceramic type have been defined in order to better understand its performance characteristics, mainly in response to induced thermal stress. In the meantime, the experimental mixing and tempering of locally sampled raw materials have shed light on the ancient manufacturing process and have led to an approximation of the original paste.     

CHARACTERIZATION OF THE AMPHORAE,STONE BALLAST AND STOWAGE MATERIALS OF THE SHIPS FROM THE ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITE OF PISA–SAN ROSSORE,ITALY: INFERENCES ON THEIR PROVENANCE AND POSSIBLE TRADING ROUTES*

In December 1998, during excavation for the construction of a new building near San Rossore railway station in Pisa, the remains of ancient ships were discovered. These findings have been dated (radiocarbon) to between the end of the 10th century bc and the fifth century ad ( Belluomini et al. 2002 ). Several transport amphorae belonging to the Hellenistic ship, samples of rocks (stone ballast) belonging to ships B, D and the Hellenistic ship, and stowage materials belonging only to ship B have been analysed. The mineralogical and petrographic data of the investigated samples provided information on the possible provenance of the raw materials utilized in the manufacture of the ceramic amphorae, as well as on the provenance of the rock materials found in the ships as ballast and stowage. The compositional data (obtained through XRD, XRF, OM and EPMA) and their statistical analyses suggest that the provenance of the Dressel amphorae belonging to the Hellenistic ship was the Middle Tyrrhenian coast of Italy, and more precisely the area between Tarquinia and Naples, according to the numerous kilns and wine production sites found in this area. The provenance of the volcanic rocks was from southern Tuscany, northern Latium and possibly the Pontine Islands, whereas the intrusive rock possibly comes from the Calabrian–Tyrrhenian coast and/or the Peloritani area. The impure limestones and the dolostone come from southern Tuscany and the Latium coast; the semi‐metamorphic rocks could come from the coast of southern Tuscany, the Tuscan Archipelago or possibly also from the Ligurian coast; only the sample of mylonitized granitoid possibly comes from either the Calabria–Peloritani arc or the Tuscan Archipelago. The stowage materials, consisting of lapilli and scoria of a pyroclastic nature, are sourced from the Neapolitan area. These data might shed some light on the centres of production of the amphorae and of the trading routes followed by the ships, according to the ports of call.     

Quantification of Linked Column Frame Seismic Performance Factors for Use in Seismic Design

Previous research has proposed the Linked Column Frame (LCF) as a lateral load-resisting system capable of providing rapid return to occupancy for buildings impacted by moderate earthquake events and collapse prevention in very large events. The LCF consists of flexible moment frames (MF) and linked columns (LC), which are closely spaced dual columns interconnected with bolted links. The linked columns (LC) are designed to limit seismic forces and provide energy dissipation through yielding of the links, while preventing damage to the moment frame under certain earthquake hazard levels. The proposed design procedure ensures the links of the linked column yield at a significantly lower story drift than the beams of the moment frame, enabling design of this system for two distinct performance states: rapid repair, where only link damage occurs and quick link replacement is possible; and collapse prevention, where both the linked column and moment frame may be damaged.

Here, the seismic performance factors for the LCF system, including the response modification factor, R, the system over-strength factor, Ω₀, and the deflection amplification factor, C_d, are established following the procedures described in FEMA P695 [2009]. These parameters are necessary for inclusion of the system in the building code. This work describes the development of archetype structures, numerical models of the LCF systems, incremental dynamic analyses, and interpretation of the results. From the results, it is recommended that R, Ω₀, and C_d values of 8, 3, and 5.5 be used for seismic design of the LCF system. A height limit of 35 m (115ft) is recommended at this time as taller LCFs are not considered in this study.     

Microflora of the H.Y.C. Pyritic Shale Member of the Barney Creek Formation (McArthur Group), middle Proterozoic of northern Australia

The H.Y.C. Pyritic Shale Member of the Barney Creek Formation (ca 1 500 my old; northern Australia) contains several stratiform base metal sulfide deposits of economic significance. Black cherts within these mineral deposits preserve a diverse assemblage of bacterial and algal microfossils. The assemblage differs from most other Precambrian biotas so far described in that it was deposited in deep water, it is not associated with stromatolites or algal mats, and it is dominated by filamentous bacteria, most of which are pyritized. Analysis of the assemblage suggests that the depth of the depositional basin exceeded that of the photic zone, that the bacteria inhabited the basin floor where they maintained anoxic conditions through heterotrophic degradation of detrital organic matter, and that the algae inhabited overlying near surface waters. Most of the algal fossils have been assigned to the Cyanophyta, although two of the described species are potentially referable to the eukaryotic green or red algae. Differences between this assemblage and other biotas described from the McArthur Group suggest that a workable system of biostratigraphic zonation for the Group is feasible.

Fossils in the H.Y.C. assemblage are here referred to 21 species and 16 genera, of which 14 species and 6 genera are new. The new taxa are: Bacteria, Biocatenoides incrustata sp. nov., B. pertenuis sp. nov., Ramacia carpentariana gen. et sp. nov., Coleobacter primus gen. et sp. nov., Ferrimonilis variabile gen. et sp. nov.; Chroococcales (Cyanophyta), Nanococcus vulgaris gen. et sp. nov., Bisacculoides tabeoviscus gen. et sp. nov., B. vacua gen. et sp. nov., B. grandis gen. et sp. nov.; Nostocales (Cyanophyta), Oscillatoriopsis schopfii sp. nov., Cyanonema inflatum sp. nov., C. minor sp. nov.; Incertae sedis, Clonophycus elegans gen. et sp. nov., Globophycus minor sp. nov. In addition, the new combination Gunflintia septata (Schopf) is proposed.     

The Weight of the Moment: J. G. A. Pocock's Politics of History

One of the great intellectual productions of the postwar period, J. G. A. Pocock's The Machiavellian Moment was also an intervention in the American polity of the 1970s. The book's content, its rhetorical style, its methodology, and even its physical printed form were all designed to effectuate a political gesture. The crises of 1968 to 1973 invalidated the optimistic liberalism of Pocock's academic circle. The history of political language offered a refuge and a programmatic foundation for Pocock's pragmatic conservatism. The Machiavellian Moment was designed to reinforce the weight of tradition in contemporary political debate.     

Magnetic detection of ship ballast deposits and anchorage sites in King Herod's Roman harbour,Caesarea Maritima,Israel

Ballast stone deposits are a common feature of sediments in ancient harbour basins but are often overlooked as a potential source of archaeological information. Recent geophysical investigations at Caesarea Maritima in Israel have discovered a thick, laterally extensive ballast layer in the area seaward of the 1st c. BC Roman harbour. The ballast deposits were identified by low-relief mounds on the seabed with elevated magnetic intensities. Jet probing and excavation of magnetic anomalies at several locations revealed a 20–60 cm thick rubble layer containing large quantities of Late Roman and Byzantine pottery, local sedimentary boulders (kurkar sandstone, limestone cobbles) and foreign igneous and metamorphic boulders (granite, schist, volcanics; ca. 50%). The foreign boulders and pottery identify the rubble layer as ballast and ships refuse jettisoned by merchant ships outside the harbour. The strong magnetic contrast between the ballast deposits and the natural seabed sediments is attributed to the high magnetic susceptibility (>10⁻³ SI) of crystalline boulders and pottery materials within the ballast rubble.     

Mongrel nation: animality and Empire in the novels of J.G. Farrell

The novels of J.G. Farrell (1935–79), reveal a writer preoccupied with the cultural representation of Britain in an era of post-imperial decline. Farrell's ‘Empire trilogy’ illustrates a national consciousness examining its chequered past through focus on Ireland in Troubles (1970), the Indian Rebellion of 1857 in The Siege of Krishnapur (1973) and the fall of Singapore in The Singapore Grip (1978). In doing so, Farrell's novels feature a notable proliferation of flora and fauna, particularly his use of dogs as representative of national character and the changeable state of British society under attack. This article argues that Farrell's novels explore the state of post-imperial Britain through a sustained focus on dogs and animality. In situations marked by degradation and decline, Farrell gradually collapses the boundaries of order and disorder, obedience and disobedience and man and beast, inviting comparisons between the animal instincts of the dogs that populate his novels and those of Britons fighting for survival.     

Holocene later stone age hunter-gatherers south of the Limpopo River, Ca. 10,000-2000 B.P.

Encouraged by new, ethnographically grounded interpretations of San rock art, Holocene hunter-gatherer research south of the Limpopo has undergone a partial paradigm shift over the last decade, away from ecological issues and in favor of questions of social organization and ideology. Earlier models relating changes in regional demography to environmental shifts now need revision, as do long-standing studies of seasonal mobility. New research emphasizes instead identification of exchange and alliance networks and patterns of seasonal aggregation and dispersal. However, several of the assumptions of these models remain untested, while dating problems make it difficult to integrate rock art with other components of the archaeological record. Critical use of a more diverse set of ethnographic data, from both within and beyond the Kalahari, is also needed. These points are emphasized in discussing evidence for social and economic intensification between 5000 and 2000 B.P. in several areas of the subcontinent (KwaZulu-Natal, the southern, eastern, and far western Cape).     

Postcranial anatomy of the early notoungulate Allalmeia atalaensis from the Eocene of Argentina

We redescribe and interpret the postcranial elements of Allalmeia atalaensis Rusconi, found in the Divisadero Largo Formation, Mendoza, Argentina. Allalmeia is one of the few basal notoungulates with preserved postcranial remains. Rusconi initially documented a skull, several vertebrae and part of the appendicular skeleton but these specimens were subsequently lost. Recently though, distal components of the holotype humeri, the proximal portion of the right femur, several broken diaphyses and most of the left and right pes (MCNAM-PV 507), were relocated. Preparation of this material has revealed new details, especially from the plantar side of the feet. The calcaneum has a distal peroneal process with marked rugosity in the lateral end, a well-developed calcaneal plantar tubercle and a large sustentaculum tali. The naviculars exhibit a well-developed medial tuberosity and slightly contact the calcaneum on the dorsal side, a condition called a ‘reverse alternating tarsus’. The disposition and morphology of the cuneiforms are similar to those of more recent typotheres and the archaic ungulate Tetraclaenodon puercensis. The phalangeal rows are oblique to each other, as in some extant digitigrade mammals. The ungual phalanges are claw-like suggesting that they might have borne claws. Long bones are gracile in comparison with other notoungulates, but with well-developed muscle origins and insertions. The use of body-mass allometric equations and a comparison with extant analogues suggests that Allalmeia was a small, generalized, digitigrade animal. An estimated body mass of approximately 3 kg is consistent with oldfieldthomasiids and archaic ungulates.