Plants and Technology: Current and Future Directions

Abstract

Located within the driftless area of southwestern Wisconsin, the Withington site provides a unique opportunity to examine the adaptive responses of Early Paleoindians exploiting this region. With a lithic assemblage dominated by Hixton Silicified Sandstone from sources over 170km to the north, chipped stone technological attributes and raw material diversity suggest that the occupants of the site were highly mobile, employed a mixed organizational strategy of toolstone transport, and possessed a wide knowledge of the lithic and social landscape. While our recent understanding of the early archaeological record of this region has progressed, a lack of published reports continues to hinder the incorporation of data from this area into larger models of Early Paleoindian subsistence and settlement. As part of an on-going research effort to address this, I present here a report and analysis of lithic material recovered from the site.     

Microwear study of quartzite artefacts: preliminary results from the Middle Pleistocene site of Payre (South-eastern France)

Preliminary functional results obtained from the quartzite assemblage of the Early Middle Palaeolithic site of Payre (South-eastern France) are presented. In an area rich in flint, hominins at Payre also collected quartzite in their local environment, specifically along the Rhône River banks. Although the Payre lithic assemblage is largely composed of flint, quartzite was introduced in the site mainly as large cutting tools knapped outside. This fact pointed out an apparently highly differential treatment of the raw material types available in the region. A major concern is to understand the reason why. Is there any functional reason for the introduction of those artefacts, perhaps to perform specific activities related to the toughness of quartzite? Or is there any functional differentiation among the various raw materials? Use-wear analysis is a useful tool for better understanding human technological choices and strategies of lithic raw material management. Before attempting to extensively apply use-wear analysis on the quartzite assemblage, we analysed a limited sample to evaluate the general surface preservation. A specific experimental programme with the same local quartzite was carried out in order to provide a reliable comparative reference for interpreting use-wear evidence on archaeological implements. Methodological difficulties related to use-wear analysis applied to quartzite artefacts are also discussed. Both Optical light microscopy (OLM) and Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) were employed in this study; however, interpretations were elaborated considering principally SEM micro-graphs.The analysis of the archaeological material showed a good state of preservation of the surfaces with a low incidence of post-depositional alterations. The documented use-wear allowed us to identify the active edges, the kinematics and, more rarely, the worked material. Chopping activities were documented on two large artefacts suggesting a specific utility of those tools.     

Detecting Apprentices and Innovators in the Archaeological Record: The Shell Bead-Making Industry of the Channel Islands

Archaeologists have demonstrated that it is challenging but feasible to identify the material remains of apprenticing activities associated with stone tool and ceramic assemblages. Building on this work, I explore apprenticing behavior in North America??s most intensive ancient shellworking context, using the large bead-making assemblages from California's Channel Islands. I examine a spectrum of production errors associated with a newly identified variant of Olivella shell bead and offer generalizations about what we should find in the material record of apprentices engaged in manufacturing ornamental goods. I also explore how we may distinguish novices?? errors from the mistakes of skilled experts experimenting with new bead forms. Existing ethnoarchaeological studies of children??s roles and contemporary craft practitioners specializing in ceramics, bead making, stone work, and other materials are foundational sources of data for this project, providing insights into the transmission of technical information from experts to novices in communities of practice. Such work directly informs archaeological research and facilitates our understanding of apprenticing from periods and regions where ethnographic information is insufficient or inapplicable.     

Slicing Cut Marks on Animal Bones: Diagnostics for Identifying Stone Tool Type and Raw Material

Abstract

Butchering implements leave identifying signatures on bones. From these signatures, it is possible to distinguish the different raw materials and types of chipped stone butchering tools. The results of recent experiments enable us to distinguish the different types of raw materials and tools used in the butchering process, in particular those implements that produce slicing cut marks. Three types of chipped stone tools (blades,flakes, and side scrapers) and raw materials (flint, obsidian, and quartzite), as well as issues relevant to lithic production and use were examined and tested. Silicone molds of cut marks produced by each of the instruments were made and subjected to analysis in light optical and scanning electron microscopes under various levels of magnification. The criteria used for distinguishing tool type, raw material, type of production and use characteristics of the respective cutting instruments are presented, as well as a discussion of the application of the experimental results to the Early Bronze Age I site of Afridar, Israel. The data from Afridar indicate that almost all of the butchering marks on animal bones from the site were made by stone tools, in particular haphazardly-made flakes.     

Swedish limestone paving in 17th-and 18th-century English buildings

Documents concerning buildings by Christopher Wren record the use of Swedish and Danish marble as a paving material. In order to establish the origin of these marbles, original pavings are examined at St Paul's Cathedral and elsewhere. Through analyses of samples and by means of other evidence both marbles are identified as Orthoceras Limestone from the Swedish island of Öland. The stone industry of Öland is described and the import of Swedish stone into England in the 17th and 18th centuries is traced through Scandinavian and English customs accounts.     

The Mousterian bone retouchers of Noisetier Cave: experimentation and identification of marks

Retouchers are fragments of bone used during the Paleolithic to strike stone flakes in order to transform them into retouched tools. Our experiments show that the mark produced on retouchers differs depending on whether they were used to strike flint or quartzite. Our results suggest that numerous pits, most often with an ovoid form, characterize the retouching of quartzite flakes. Most of the scores produced with this material have a sinuous morphology with rough interior faces. The areas with superposed traces have a pitted appearance. On the other hand, the retouching of flint flakes, produces pits that are most often triangular in form. Most of the scores have a rectilinear morphology with smooth interior faces and their superposition results in the formation of hatch marks. There is also a relationship between the characteristics of the mark and the relative state of freshness of the retouchers. The validity of the criteria identified was confirmed by a blind test. These diagnostic criteria were applied to archaeological retouchers from the Mousterian site of Noisetier Cave. The results obtained improve our knowledge of the technical behaviors of Neanderthals and allow us to address questions concerning their techno-economic implications.     

吉林省和龙西沟发现的旧石器

2006年6月发现,该地点位于和龙市龙城镇西沟村西南,距西沟村约800米的Ⅳ级侵蚀阶地上。在地表采集石器102件,包括石核、石片、石叶、断片、断块、废片、1类工具、2类工具和3类工具。原料以黑曜岩为主,占69.61%,其次是石英、石英岩、凝灰岩、板岩等。属于以小石器为主体的工业向以细石器为主体的工业过渡的类型。推测该地点年代为旧石器时代晚期。     

10,000 Years in the Rocky Mountains: The Helen Lookingbill Site

Abstract

Located in a spring-fed meadow at 2620 masl, Helen Lookingbill is a stratified, high-altitude open site in the Washakie Range of the Absaroka Mountains in NW Wyoming. The site contains cultural material ranging in age from Paleoindian through Late Prehistoric periods. Although the densest cultural deposits date to the Early Archaic (8000–5000 b.p., uncalibrated), other time periods are well represented. A 10,400 year old layer comprises the earliest component (Haskett/Hell Gap) in the main excavation area; above it is a series of Late Paleoindian, Early Archaic, later Archaic, and Late Prehistoric components. The major materials at the site are chipped stone and bone, while a deer bone bed dating between 6500 and 6800 b.p. is contained within the main excavation block. In addition to deet; the site contains the remains of mountain sheep, bison, porcupine, and other mammals. Located on and near both quartzite and chert stone sources, the mountain meadow served as a prehistoric camp site and yielded evidence of tool production, heat treatment, refurbishing, and use. Interdisciplinary research provides much information pertinent to understanding the nature of site occupation with implications for regional cultural dynamics, high altitude hunter-gatherer adaptations, and site formation processes.     

Raw material quality and Oldowan hominin toolstone preferences: evidence from Kanjera South,Kenya

The role of raw material quality in Oldowan technology has not been fully explored. There are numerous studies suggesting Oldowan hominins preferred certain types of stone for artifact manufacture. Previous studies of the artifact assemblage from the early Pliocene Oldowan locality of Kanjera South (South Rachuonyo District, Kenya) show that raw material selection and transport was an important aspect of Late Pliocene hominin adaptations. Yet the exact properties of stones that hominins were selecting remain enigmatic. Two potentially important features of artifact raw material are durability and fracture predictability. We investigate fracture predictability through mechanical tests of stone and investigations of the affect of stone properties on fracture patterns in archaeological collections. We investigate stone durability with actualistic studies of edge attrition combined with further mechanical tests of various lithologies. Oldowan hominins at Kanjera appear to have selected raw materials based on their durability. The ability for a stone to fracture consistently does not appear to be as important in hominin toolstone preference as previously assumed. Hominins that produced the assemblages at Kanjera South appear to have incorporated an extensive understanding of various attributes of raw material in the transport and production of stone artifacts. When combined with previous research on the transport patterns at Kanjera, the results of this study provide evidence for a more complex raw material acquisition strategy than has previously been suggested for Late Pliocene Oldowan hominins.     

First results on thermally induced porosity in chlorite cooking vessels from Merv (Turkmenistan) and implications for the formation and preservation of archaeological lipid residues

Excavations at the ancient city of Merv in Turkmenistan have yielded a significant assemblage of ceramic and stone vessel fragments from contexts dating to the Sasanian and medieval periods (5th–13th centuries AD). Many of the vessel fragments are encrusted with apparent food residue deposits offering scope for organic residue analysis and the potential to compare the use of these two very different vessel types. To enable meaningful comparison we sought to establish whether the vessel stone (a talc-chlorite schist) can absorb and preserve organic residues indicative of past use. This paper reports the first investigation to address this question using standard methods for archaeological residue analysis coupled with study of the properties of the schist fabric and basic absorption experiments. The results demonstrate that heating during cooking, even at relatively low temperatures, modifies the stone microstructure by increasing its porosity. These pores enhance the absorption capacity of the schist fabric such that chlorite cooking pots can absorb and preserve sufficient organic residue to reflect the original processing of foodstuffs, as has been previously demonstrated for ceramic fabrics. Comparison of pore capacity, archaeological residue yield and experimental absorption indicates the significance of pore-size distribution for the relative retention and preservation of organic residues in these fabrics. The results of this study indicate that a wider range of archaeological material may be suitable for absorbed residue analysis than has previously been recognised. The findings also challenge previous assumptions concerning the relationship between the properties of chlorite vessels and their mode of use in Central Asia and Near East in antiquity.     

Enmity and Amity: Reconsidering Stone-headed Club (gabagaba) Procurement and Trade in Torres Strait

Historical records for Torres Strait, including those from Haddon's 1898 Cambridge Anthropological Expedition, identify the Papuan mainland as the main trade source for stone-headed clubs (gabagaba). This view has persisted despite the contradictory facts that the Papuan lowlands are essentially devoid of stone and Torres Strait abounds in stone suitable for club manufacture. Not surprisingly, preliminary raw material findings for ethnographic and archaeological gabagaba in museums indicate that local Torres Strait manufacture was more significant than previously thought. Some of the early confusion over gabagaba sources probably reflects diffusionist assumptions that ‘superior’ cultural items, such as stone-headed clubs, must have moved from so-called ‘advanced’ Papuans to ‘less-developed’ Torres Strait Islanders. However, more significant is the lack of understanding of the multiple and complex roles of gabagaba in inter-group social relations which saw clubs moving between Islanders and Papuans through looting, trade and ceremonial exchange. Apart from their well-documented use as lethal weapons during head-hunting raids, I argue that gabagaba also had an important ceremonial role in exchanges between hostile groups aimed at cementing social alliances. Following post-contact disruptions to trading networks and inter-group hostilities, the social/ceremonial roles of gabagaba were emphasised while gabagaba production became less specialised.     

Geochemical sourcing of rock specimens and stone artifacts from Nihoa and Necker Islands,Hawai'i

We report geochemical analysis of seven rock specimens and six stone artifacts from Nihoa and Necker Islands, Hawai'i. The analyzed rock specimens exhibit chemistry consistent with published data sets and establish a major element distinction between Nihoa and Necker. Their trace element data indicate that the analyzed rocks and artifacts are local in origin and they reliably discriminate from sources on Kaua'i. These preliminary results support Emory's thesis that early (archaic) Hawaiian colonists on Nihoa and Necker relied on their local basaltic stone to manufacture stone tools, containers, and other portable objects.     

Flint and Quartzite: Distinguishing Raw Material Through Bone Cut Marks

Since the 1980s, several experimental analyses have been able to differentiate some lithic tool types and some of their raw materials according to the morphology of cut marks imprinted by such tools when used for butchering activities. Thus, metal tool use has been differentiated in contexts with an abundance of lithic tools, or even the use of hand axes has been documented in carcass processing, in contrast with simple unretouched or retouched flakes. As important as this information is, there are still other important aspects to be analysed. Can cut marks produced with different lithic raw material types be differentiated? Can cut marks made with different types of the same raw material type be characterized and differentiated? The objective of this study is to evaluate if cut marks resulting from the use of different flints and different quartzites are distinguishable from each other. In the present work, an experimental analysis of hundreds of cut marks produced by five types of flint and five varieties of quartzite was carried out. Microphotogrammetry and geometric–morphometric techniques were applied to analyse these cut marks. The results show that flint cut marks and quartzite cut marks can be characterized at the assemblage level. Different types of flint produced cut marks that were not significantly different from each other. Cut marks made with Olduvai Gorge quartzite were significantly different from those produced with a set comprising several other types of quartzites. Crystal size, which is larger in Olduvai Gorge quartzites (0.5 mm) than Spanish quartzites (177–250 μm), is discussed as being the main reason for these statistically significant differences. This documented intra‐sample and inter‐sample variance does not hinder the resolution of the approach to differentiate between these two generic raw material types and opens the door for the application of this method in archaeological contexts.     

宁波东钱湖石刻群微生物病害研究

宁波东钱湖石刻群为第五批全国重点文物保护单位,代表了南宋石刻和石雕的艺术成就。由于所处环境和气候条件的影响,石刻群微生物病害情况较严重。为了尝试筛选适宜的微生物去除方法和防止石刻表面生长微生物的材料,通过微生物种属鉴定、清除方法试验以及防止石刻表面生长微生物的材料筛选,确定了石刻上所生长的微生物种类,初步得出了东钱湖石刻群生物病害治理措施,为南方地区潮湿环境下石刻微生物防治提供了借鉴。     

Chipped Stone Debitage,Material Selection,and Expedient Tool Production in Southeast Michigan

Abstract

This article summarizes the results of exploratory analyses on material sources and debitage attributes from chipped stone artifacts at sites identified and sampled by the Eastern Michigan University Field School along the Huron River Valley in southeast Michigan. Several hypotheses are tested with chipped stone debitage assemblages from 35 prehistoric sites to better understand material selection, expedient versus formal tool manufacturing, and the influence of material availability and mobility in chipped stone processing within the region. The distribution of debitage attributes (reduction stage, technology, condition, and size) are first compared by material source and quality. Then, the distributions of materials and debitage attributes are compared among small limited-use sites and two early Late Woodland small settlements. The results indicate a heavy reliance on poorer quality local cherts, and a focus on expedient tool manufacturing with both the local poorer quality and the nonlocal higher quality sources. There were no major differences in debitage assemblages between the limited use sites and the settlements.     

Defining and Characterizing Archaeological Quartzite: Sedimentary and Metamorphic Processes in the Lithic Assemblages of El Habario and El Arteu (Cantabrian Mountains,Northern Spain)

Quartzite was the second most‐often used lithic raw material in Europe in the Palaeolithic. However, this rock has not been characterized fully from the geo‐archaeological point of view. This study characterizes, defines and determines types of quartzite in northern Spain through a methodology that integrates petrography, digital image processing and X‐ray fluorescence. As a methodological foundation for the characterization of the material, it aims to open the possibility of discovering mechanisms of mobility, selection and management of quartzite by prehistoric societies. The types determined, based on the petrogenesis of the material, enable a better understanding of the archaeological sites of El Arteu and El Habario in the context of northern Spain in the Middle Palaeolithic.     

汉代平板陶范竖式浇铸法铸钱工艺的研究

平板范竖式浇铸工艺是我国早期铸钱的基本形式,根据材质的不同,可将平板范分为石范、陶范和金属范.由于与平板陶范竖式浇铸法铸钱相关遗物出土数量少,该方法不是汉代铸钱工艺中的主要方法,故目前还未对其开展系统的研究.本工作对平板陶范竖式浇铸法铸钱相关遗物进行了归类分析.表明该工艺不仅在西汉早期一直在使用着,到东汉时期,仍然被用于铸钱.通过模拟实验对汉代的平板陶范竖式浇铸法铸钱工艺进行了研究,其工艺过程为:铸造金属制范模,在模上翻制陶范,陶范经阴干焙烧后铸造钱币.金属制范模的制作,提高了陶范制作的效率,同时也保证了钱币在型腔尺寸和文字上的一致性.     

The Farasan Islands,Saudi Arabia: towards a chronology of settlement

An archaeological survey of Saudi Arabia's Farasan Islands in May 2010 recorded a broad range of sites that have not previously been documented. The survey concentrated on Greater Farasan and Segid islands, and comprised a rapid recording of sites shown to the authors by representatives of the Saudi Commission for Tourism and Antiquities. The sites were photographed, their positions logged, sketch drawings made of the principal features and surface pottery drawn and photographed. Detailed drawings were made of a stone anchor and a well with possible Ancient South Arabian carved decoration. The sites visited included settlements, wells, cemeteries and a cave. Several sites included the remains of buildings made of massive ashlar blocks, as well as others of rubble‐stone construction. Datable material at the sites points to several periods of occupation, from the early first millennium BC to early modern times. Some locations were characterised by long periods of settlement. Apart from the findings of this survey, most of the sites remain largely uninvestigated, and suggest significant potential for future research into settlement on the archipelago, as well as into past maritime activity and technology in the southern Red Sea region and beyond.