Underwater Investigation on a Marble Cargo Wreck at Capo Bianco near Isola di Capo Rizzuto,Crotone, Italy

The cargo of marble blocks off Capo Bianco was dated to the Roman period. New sampling and analysis has identified Carrara marble, and also Rosso di Francia and Portargento, which strongly suggests a post‐medieval date. This leads to the suggestion that nearby finds dating between the second half of the 18th century and the first half of the 19th may come from the same ship, perhaps sailing from France and Liguria to deliver stone in southern Italy. This is rare evidence of the post‐medieval marble trade and demonstrates the importance of archaeometric analysis for the interpretation of wrecked cargos. © 2011 The Authors     

The Roman Ship 'punta Scifo d' and its Marble Cargo (Crotone,Italy)

In the first three centuries AD, large‐scale building projects, both in Rome and in the western colonies, stimulated the demand for marble from the eastern quarries. The Punta Scifo D shipwreck – discovered in 1986 in the Bay of Scifo, south of Crotone, Italy, and investigated in 2011 and 2013 by a team from the Università Ca' Foscari of Venice – is an important source for the reconstruction of this kind of trade in the Roman Empire. Studies of the cargo, dated to the third century AD, were the basis for the virtual reconstruction of a barge about 40 m long carrying a cargo of almost 340 tons. Petrographic and isotopic analyses demonstrated that it carried three different types of marble: mainly Proconnesian, some Pentelic, and one slab of Dokimean marble. The ship probably departed from the island of Marmara, and stopped at Ephesos, and perhaps also at Piraeus.     

The Underwater Recovery of Monumental Marble Column Drums from an Ancient Shipwreck at Kızılburun,Turkey

In the first century B.C., a stone carrier sank off the Aegean coast of Turkey at K?z?lburun transporting all the elements of a monumental marble column, including a single Doric capital and eight drums. The 60-tonne cargo lay at a depth of 45–48 m and was excavated in its entirety by the Institute of Nautical Archaeology at Texas A&M University between 2005 and 2011. Ongoing research has shown that the Doric column pieces in the K?z?lburun cargo originated in the marble quarries on Proconnesus Island in the Sea of Marmara and were very likely heading for the Temple of Apollo at Claros when the ship sank just 50 km short of its destination. The complete recovery of the ship’s cargo posed a unique set of methodological challenges involving lifting the multi-tonne marble drums without disturbing the delicate waterlogged wooden hull remains preserved beneath. This report summarizes the solutions developed over five seasons in order to rig, hoist, move, and ultimately raise to the surface eight large ancient marble column drums (as well as all the other marble artifacts in the cargo) from a depth of almost 50 m under water.     

MINERO‐PETROGRAPHIC AND GEOCHEMICAL CHARACTERIZATION OF ‘GRECO SCRITTO’ MARBLE FROM CAP DE GARDE,NEAR HIPPO REGIUS (ANNABA,ALGERIA)*

This work presents the results of the first mineralogical, petrographical and geochemical characterization of the marble quarried from the Cap de Garde headland, not far from Annaba (Algeria). This site is traditionally held by archaeologists to be the main source of supply of the so‐called ‘greco scritto’ marble, which was much used by the Romans for architectural and decorative–ornamental purposes, locally from the first century bc , and in Rome and central and southern Italy from the late Flavian period until the fourth century ad . The databank relating to the quarried material, created here for the first time, is used to establish the origin of ‘greco scritto’ found in six important Roman cities of North Africa: Hippo Regius and Cuicul (Djemila), in Algeria; Volubilis, in Morocco; Cyrene, in Libya; and Carthage and Utica in Tunisia. The results of this archaeometric study support the hypothesis (already put forward by authors) that the ‘greco scritto’used in the Roman Mediterranean originated from different sites, and suggest the existence of a number of North African quarries, also in the vicinity of Annaba.     

White and Coloured Marbles of the Roman Town of Urbs Salvia (Urbisaglia,Macerata, Marche,Italy)

The results of an archaeometric study concerning the coloured stones and 14 white marble sculptures found in the ancient city of Urbs Salvia (Urbisaglia, Macerata) – one of the main Roman archaeological sites of the Marche region (east central Italy) – are presented here. Data show the presence of the most important decorative stones used by the Romans, originating in all of the Mediterranean provinces, from Egypt and North Africa to Asia Minor, Greece, Gallia, Iberia and Italy. Thirty‐one different coloured lithotypes have been identified, including red and green porphyries as well as marmor phrygium and numidicum, namely the four most expensive stones cited in Diocletian's edict. Crustae of marmor chium, taenarium, chalcidicum, scyreticum, lucullaeum and sagarium also feature. Another significant presence is that of coloured stones that are generally rare, even in Rome and Ostia, such as cipollino mandolato (which is very abundant at Urbs Salvia, more than anywhere outside Gallia), broccatello di Spagna, alabastro a pecorella, lapis ophytes, brecciated facies of marmor iassene and cottanello antico. Worthy of mention, too, is the abundant presence of so‐called Roman breccia from Lez (Upper Garonne valley, French Pyrenees), a stone never reported outside Gallia. The 14 marble sculptures analysed come from public and private buildings of the Roman city and are now exhibited at the Archaeological Museum of Urbisaglia. Our petrographic and isotopic analyses show that they are made of Lunense (five), Pentelic (three), Parian lychnites (three), Thasian (three) and Proconnesian (one Corinthian capital) marbles. The quality of the coloured stones identified, together with the presence of sculptures made of precious imported white marble varieties, reveals an opulent town and a local patronage wishing to decorate public buildings and rich houses with the most sought‐after marbles of Rome.     

WHITE,VEINED MARBLE FROM ROMAN AMMAIA (PORTUGAL): PROVENANCE AND USE

A multimethod approach using petrography and strontium (Sr) isotopic analysis was applied to determine the geological source of 17 marble artefacts from the Roman town of Ammaia (Portugal). All samples are calcitic, with dolomite, quartz and muscovite as accessory minerals. The marbles are characteristically medium‐grained with a maximum grain size (MGS) between 0.98 mm and 1.82 mm, have a heteroblastic texture, and have curved to embayed calcite grain boundaries. ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr values of marble leachates range from 0.708488 to 0.708639. Comparison with Hispanic and Mediterranean marbles suggests the Estremoz Anticline as the most likely source for the Ammaia marble, especially for architectural marble. This hypothesis is supported by the geographical proximity of the Estremoz marble district and the long and expensive overland transport required for other marbles to reach Ammaia.     

The White Marble of the Arch of Augustus (Susa,North‐Western Italy): Mineralogical and Petrographic Analysis for the Definition of its Origin

The Arch of Augustus in Susa (north‐western Italy) was built in 9–8 bc by King Cottius, to celebrate the treaty between the Romans and the Gauls. It is made of white marble, which was considered for a long time to be locally extracted, but no archaeometric studies have been performed up to now. Therefore, a multi‐analytical study based on petrographic (optical and scanning electron microscopy), electron microprobe and stable isotope analyses was carried out on the marble from the arch and from reference samples, with the aim of defining the provenance. All the data confirmed that white marble belonging to the metamorphosed carbonate cover of the Dora Maira Massif, known as Foresto marble, was used for the Susa Arch. This choice was probably made for economic reasons, but also due to the relative independence of the ruling family of the Alpes Cottiae, which was obviously interested in promoting a local marble.     

THE ESTABLISHMENT OF A DATA BASE OF NEUTRON ACTIVATION ANALYSES OF WHITE MARBLE*

The establishment of a data base of trace element analysis results obtained by neutron activation analysis of 183 marble samples, each weighing about 200 mg, from eight different quarrying localities for use in provenance studies is described and a summary of the results presented. The problems of sampling museum artefacts are discussed, and details of tests of the reproducibility of the technique are given together with those obtained from multiple-samples from single museum objects. Replicate analyses of a marble standard are also discussed. Thus these data are a measure of the accuracy and precision of the technique, as well as allowing an assessment of the variation in trace element composition within quarry sources and single blocks of marble, as used for artefacts.     

Plant macroremains from the Roman harbour of Pisa (Italy)

Abstract

Results relating to the identification of macroscopic plant remains (leaves, fruits, seeds) discovered during the archaeological excavation of the Roman harbour of Pisa, in Tuscany, Italy are reported. The plant samples include the cultivated species Prunus spp., Corylus, Olea, Vicia, Juglans and the nemoral wild species Salix spp., Quercus spp., Fagus, Ulmus, Alnus. The remains of cultivated plants — fragments of fruits and seeds — were perhaps part of the boats' cargo or stores for the crew's meals. In the case of the wild taxa, the simultaneous presence of fruit and leaves, suggests that the remains recovered came from the forest vegetation bordering the area of excavation and the adjacent higher grounds, thus delineating a new vegetation landscape for the ager pisanus.     

Archaeological carved slabs of the Langobard art in churches of Peligna Valley and Spoleto (Italy): provenance of the stones

In this study we investigate the provenance of the limestone and marble used to made carved slabs today placed in three churches located in Raiano and Vittorito (Peligna Valley, Abruzzo, Italy) and in Spoleto (Umbria, Italy). The slabs, representative examples of the Langobard art (Middle Ages), are dated approximately from 8th to 9th centuries A.D. and have the same pattern in terms of decoration, suggesting a progressive expansion of Langobards in central and southern Italy, after the foundation of the Pavia Kingdom.     

Unveiling the Use of Creta in Roman Plasters: Analysis of Clay Wall Paintings From Brixia (Italy)

The paper describes the analysis of a particular kind of plaster from the walls of the Roman Sanctuary (first half of the first century bce ) in the centre of Brixia (now Brescia, Italy), which is an outstanding example of Roman Republican architecture. The walls were plastered and painted with different patterns, imitating marble panels and curtains. Optical microscopy on thin sections, X‐ray diffraction and infrared spectroscopy were performed on several samples of the plaster in order to reveal the execution technique. The palette consisted of glauconite, celadonite, Egyptian blue, and red and yellow ochres. In some cases, an organic compound, possibly a lipidic compound, was present in the external paint layer, as a surface treatment. The plaster contains two superimposed coats: the render coat with lime binder and sandy aggregate; the finish coat with a clay fraction (illite, chlorite, kaolinite), together with calcite from slaked lime and grains of quartz, silicate and carbonate rocks. Although Vitrivius' De architectura reported the use of creta (clay) as daub smeared on reed vaults, the Sanctuary of Brixia represents the first documented use in Roman buildings in a painted plaster laid on a stone masonry wall.     

Petrographic Characterization and Provenance Determination of the Crystalline Marbles Used in the Roman City of Banasa (Morocco): New Data on the Import of Iberian Marble in Roman North Africa

This paper reports the results of an archaeometric study of the crystalline marbles used in the Roman city of Banasa (Morocco). On‐site surveys allowed a detailed inspection of the monuments of the ancient city and sampling of the different marble lithotypes used for architectural purposes and sculptures. The inventory was completed by the study of both the grey‐and‐white streaked or spotted marble items stored in the warehouse of the archaeological site and of those currently exhibited at the National Archaeological Museum of Rabat. Provenance determination of 28 samples was carried out by means of a multi‐method approach combining mineralogical–petrographic data and C–O stable isotope analyses as the first step, and cathodoluminescence microscopy as a complementary technique to verify possible unusual alternative origins of some marbles. The analytical results obtained were compared with both the most reliable international databases and the few available studies dealing with the use of marble in other Roman towns in Morocco (e.g., Volubilis, Thamusida and Sala‐Chellah). They point to a variety of classical marble sources such as Carrara, Mount Penteli, Paros, Marmara and probably Mount Filfila (Algeria), and prove a significant import of Iberian lithotypes.     

ACCESSORY MINERALS AS TRACERS IN THE PROVENANCING OF ARCHAEOLOGICAL MARBLES,USED IN COMBINATION WITH ISOTOPIC AND PETROGRAPHIC DATA*

Thirty‐eight archaeological marbles (Roman and medieval) from Modena and Reggio Emilia (northern Italy) were provenanced using the accessory minerals as tracers and the results were compared with those inferred for the same artefacts using isotope composition and MGS (maximum grain size of calcite grains). The number of inferred possible sources is generally lower when using the mineralogical method, which therefore seems to be suited to marble provenancing.     

ON THE WHITE AND COLOURED MARBLES OF THE ROMAN TOWN OF CUICUL (DJEMILA,ALGERIA)

This paper reports the results of an archaeometric study of the local and imported marbles found in the Roman town of Cuicul (now Djemila, Algeria), a research project funded by the Sixth Framework Programme of the European Union. Of the few imported coloured lithotypes that have been found, four are of Greek origin and one was imported from Asia Minor. In addition, two other classical Roman coloured stones found on the site are probably of local North African origin (most likely one from Numidia and one from Algeria). With regard to the grey and white marbles employed in the statuary and architecture, petrographic study in thin section and the δ¹³C and δ¹⁸O isotopic data emphasize the frequent use of the local fine‐grained lithotype from Filfila (Skikda) together with imported Greek lithotypes (i.e., Pentelic marble, the dolomitic variety of Thasian marble, and Parian marble from Lakkoi) as well as different varieties of the so‐called ‘greco scritto’, whose provenance in some cases still remains uncertain. In fact, the petrographic and geochemical features of the marbles do not always match those known for the classical ‘greco scritto’ from the quarry of Cap de Garde, near Annaba (Algeria).     

The use of white marbles for sculpture in Roman Gortyn (Crete) as revealed by archaeometric analyses

Gortyn was an important Cretan town from the late Archaic to the Hellenistic period and then became one of the provincial capitals of the Roman Empire. It controlled the whole of Crete and Cyrenaica and was a flourishing centre of trade and agricultural products in the first centuries of our era. In more than 100 years, many portions of the Greek and Roman town were unearthed under the supervision of the Italian Archaeological School of Athens and a considerable number of stone artefacts found, many of them made of imported marble since the local variety was grey and of poor quality. Statuary and other prestigious marble sculpted artefacts found in Gortyn were sampled and subjected to archaeometric examination (by way of optical microscopy in thin section, powder X-Ray diffraction and mass spectometry for the determination of the C and O isotopic ratio) in order to identify the quarries they came from. The results obtained from the analysis of several dozen white marble objects have indicated the use of a quite wide variety of species including Parian (from Lakkoi), Pentelic, Thasian (dolomitic and calcitic) and (occasionally) Proconnesian marbles. The first three, especially Pentelic, were used for most of the statuary.     

ELECTRON SPIN RESONANCE STUDY OF WHITE MARBLES FROM THARROS (SARDINIA): A REAPPRAISAL OF THE TECHNIQUE,POSSIBILITIES AND LIMITATIONS*

The characterization of various samples of white marble from the archaeological site of Tharros (Sardinia) is the starting point for the reexamination of the capabilities of electron spin resonance (ESR) spectroscopy as a tool for identifying the quarries of origin of ancient marble artefacts. Existing methods and data bases are employed for the assignment of our samples, but also reviewed to see if a more extensive use of the technique is feasible. It turns out that ESR spectroscopy, coupled with other available methods, may readily provide valuable information, often yielding the final answer to the problem of marble provenance. However, it is also clear that much work has still to be done to standardize the data collection and analysis procedures and to expand the available data base.     

The Roman wreck of c. AD 200 at Plemmirio, near Siracusa (Sicily): Interim report

A Roman wreck, named Plemmirio B^[1]i, lies on the rocky talus below the southern cliffs of Capo Murro di Porco, near Costa Bianca del Plemmirio (Penisola della Maddalena), prov. Siracusa, Sicily. The cargo of amphoras and iron bars, relatively well-preserved, is situated between 22 m and 47 m depth. Following brief examinations in 1974–1982, a University of Bristol expedition spent four weeks surveying the site in July-August 1983^[2] This paper presents an interim summary of these campaigns; a comprehensive report will be published after completion of excavations at the site^[3]. The archaeological deposit at Plemmirio B is characterized by concentrations of fragmented amphoras. There is no direct evidence for the structure of the ship, much of which may have disintegrated during the initial wreck process, but study of the artefact distribution suggests a vessel of fairly large capacity. The amphora consignment (which may have numbered no more than 200) comprised cylindrical African containers, 80% of which were form Africana 2A and 20% Africana 1^[4] w. The Africana 2A amphoras had internal resinous linings, and so may have contained a fish product rather than olive oil. Other amphoras exposed on the site were at least one Mauretanian Dressel 30 (Keay type 1) and two possibly intrusive amphoras of unclassified types. Ferrous concretions contained voids (hollow casts) which may once have been about 39 wrought iron bars, of two distinctive shapes. These, and several other concretions of unidentified forms, may represent a consignment of iron originally weighing approximately one tonne. Other finds from the wreck are two cooking pots, a small bowl or cup, a sounding lead, three fragments of tegula rooftiles, and two small stone blocks. One of the cooking pots confirms a date for the wreck based on the amphora association of circa AD 180–250, most likely in the first decade of the 3rd century. The amphora assemblage belongs to an important phase of commerce from North Africa represented by at least 20 known wreck cargoes; however, few of these sites have been scientifically recorded or are as closely dated as Plemmirio B, and the diversity of container types and cargo consignments on this wreck is of particular interest.     

PROVENANCE DETERMINATION OF NEOLITHIC TO CLASSICAL MEDITERRANEAN MARBLES BY STABLE ISOTOPES*

Two stable isotopic data bases for ?¹³C and ?¹⁸O values of marble have been accumulated: (1) 590 analyses from 42 Classical quarries of Greece, western Turkey, Tunisia, and Carrara, Italy, and (2) potential Early Bronze Age (EBA) marble sources in the central Cyclades, comprising 192 analyses from 16 sites on the islands of Paros, Naxos, Ios, and Keros. The data bases include the most important marble occurrences in the eastern Mediterranean and so can be used to source artefacts of any age. Neolithic artefacts found at Franchthi Cave, where no marble occurs locally, have been attributed to the Peloponnese and the Cyclades, direct evidence for early trade. In the Cycladic EBA, Naxos and Keros were the principal marble sources for the abundant artefacts found at Keros. The commercial marble trade in Archaic Greece began in the central Cyclades where the tradition apparently went back some 5000 years, to the Neolithic. Classical Greece and especially Rome expanded the number and locations of commercial marble sources throughout the Mediterranean.     

Ceramic findings from the archaeological site at Aiano-Torraccia di Chiusi (Siena,Italy): a multi-analytical approach

In 2005, the remains of a Roman villa, dating from the early fourth to the sixth centuries ad, were discovered at the archaeological site of Aiano-Torraccia di Chiusi (Siena, Italy). After being abandoned in the sixth century ad, the complex was occupied by a group of Ostrogothic or Lombardic artisans in the period between the sixth and the seventh centuries ad. Many ceramic remains (coarse pottery and red slip ceramics) from the first to the seventh centuries ad have been discovered on this archaeological site. These findings have been analysed using different analytical techniques (optical microscopy (OM), X-ray diffraction (XRD), X-ray fluorescence (XRF), scanning electron microscope-energy dispersive spectroscopy (SEM-EDS), attenuated total reflection Fourier transform infrared (ATR-FTIR), and micro-Raman in order to characterize the ceramic body, the coating, the temper, and to investigate the compositional relationship between the different kinds of ceramics. The use of different techniques on the same samples yielded information at different scales. OM and SEM-EDS yielded interesting information on the coarse pottery: the analyses performed on some minerals and rock fragments suggest that stone tesserae from the Roman villa (in the form of numerous marble fragments) were used in the production of this pottery. Bulk analyses (XRD and XRF) and subsequent micro-analyses (SEM-EDS, ATR-FTIR, and micro-Raman) of the red slip pottery revealed clear chemical, mineralogical and textural differences: some ceramics (the TCC sample group) typically have a Fe-enriched coating while others (the INGR sample group) present a clear difference in grain size but no chemical or mineralogical differences between the ceramic body and the coating.