Lapis lazuli usage for blue decoration of polychrome painted glazed pottery: a recurrent technology during the Middle Ages in Apulia (Southern Italy)

Seven fragments of atypical proto-majolica from the archaeological site of Siponto (Manfredonia, Foggia) were analysed by chemical and physical methods. All fragments have blue, brown and yellow painted decorations. Raman microscopy and Scanning Electron Microscopy–Energy Dispersed Spectroscopy (SEM–EDS) investigations identified the blue pigment to lapis lazuli. We previously identified this mineral in the blue coloration of the tin–lead glaze of proto-majolica finds at other Medieval sites in Apulia (Castel Fiorentino and Lucera). The discovery of the fragments from Siponto, in spite of their peculiar technological-decorative features, proves that the use of lapis lazuli as a ceramic pigment was not an isolated occurrence, but was quite common in the Middle Ages in the production of typologically heterogeneous ceramics in Southern Italy.     

中国古代彩绘艺术中应用青金石颜料的产地之谜

青金石（1azrite;Lapislazuli）是中国古老的传统玉石之一,其化学组成为（Na,Ca）7-8（AlSi）12（O,S）24[SO4,C12（OH）2]。由于青金石具有美丽的天蓝色,所以,我国古代很早就把它作为彩绘用的蓝色颜料。据调查研究,我国现有10多个省、市、自治区的石窟寺等遗址中保存的彩绘艺术品中都应用了青金石颜料,例如新疆、甘肃、陕西、青海、宁夏、河南、山东、山西、辽宁、四川、重庆等。从发现青金石的石窟位置来看,大都是丝绸之路上的佛教文化遗址。丝绸之路也被称为宝石之路。通过对敦煌石窟所属莫高窟、西千佛洞、安西榆林窟、东千佛洞等石窟的北魏、西魏、北周、隋、唐、五代、北宋、回鹘（Uigur）、西夏、元等十余个朝代的洞窟中取样,经采用x一射线衍射（XIKD）、X荧光（XRF）分析,证明在北魏至元的石窟壁画、彩塑艺术中都应用了青金石颜料。采用扫描电镜（SEM）及其电子探针（EPMA）对历代青金石颜料的显微形貌、晶粒或颗粒大小、晶界情况、物相组成、晶相、微量元素等进行了分析。采用质子激发x荧光（PIXE）分析方法分析了敦煌、麦积山、炳灵寺石窟等不同石窟、不同朝代的青金石颜料,获得了该颜料的定性定量分析结果,对青金石颜料中所含的Mn、Cr、As、Ti、sr、Sb、Zn等微量元素作了讨论,又与XRF、XRD、SPMA分析结果作了对比,并与阿富汗、独联体等国外青金石矿产品分析结果进行对比研究。     

Protocol for lapis lazuli provenance determination: evidence for an Afghan origin of the stones used for ancient carved artefacts kept at the Egyptian Museum of Florence (Italy)

Despite that the Badakhshan Province (Afghanistan) remains the most plausible hypothesis for the lapis lazuli used in antiquity, alternatives proposed in literature are worth to study to confirm or disprove their historical reliability. In this work, a protocol for determining the provenance of lapis lazuli rocks used for carved artefacts is described. Markers for the univocal attribution of the raw material to a source were identified analysing 45 rocks of known provenance (among which 15 georeferenced) from 4 quarry districts. To the best of our knowledge, this reference database is the widest in provenance studies on lapis lazuli. All the markers are recognisable by means of Ion Beam Analysis (IBA) techniques, in particular micro-proton-induced x-ray emission (PIXE) and micro-ionoluminescence (IL). These techniques are non-invasive and applicable in air, allowing to analyse artworks and rocks of practically any shape and dimension without sample preparation.The protocol was applied to determine the provenance of raw material used for carved lapis lazuli artefacts kept at the Egyptian Museum of Florence, the second most important Egyptian museum in Italy, second only to the museum of Turin. The collection in Florence has a great historical value and includes several lapis lazuli pendants, scarabs, small statuettes and amulets ascribable mainly to the first millennium BC. Following the protocol, 11 of these artefacts were analysed by means of IBA techniques. Results ascribe the raw material to the Afghan quarry district.     

新疆龟兹库木吐喇石窟壁画制作工艺与材料分析

壁画制作工艺与材料研究既是壁画病害原因与机理研究不可缺少的数据,更是筛选壁画保护修复材料与工艺的重要依据。本文利用X射线衍射、X射线荧光、剖面显微、激光拉曼分析了库木吐喇石窟第34、45 46、50、56、58、60、63窟壁画颜料、白粉层、地仗。结果表明,库木吐喇壁画制作工艺是先在陡峭的砂砾岩崖壁上开凿成形洞窟,之后在洞窟围岩上用掺有麦秸的黏土泥抹平砂岩壁面,待这层泥质地仗层完全晾干后用石膏涂刷;最后进行线描添彩。所用颜料红色颜料是铅丹,蓝色颜料使用的是青金石;绿色颜料是绿铜矿;白色颜料是白垩、石膏;均为常见壁画颜料。     

敦煌石窟艺术应用颜料的产地之谜

论述了敦煌石窟彩绘艺术颜料的研究背景、科学分析方法和结果。并根据史料所载以及现代科学的实际勘探考察,结合颜料的科学分析,对敦煌石窟艺术所用的朱砂、铅丹、赭石、绛矾、雄黄、雌黄、密陀僧、金粉、金箔、石绿、铜绿、石青、青金石、群青、铅粉、石膏、白垩、云母、二氧化铅等主要矿物质颜料的化学成分、应用及其产地进行了探索。     

克孜尔石窟出土蓝色颜料研究

克孜尔石窟是蜚声中外的佛教艺术宝库,其丰富的历史文化遗存,是研究丝绸之路文化交流与融合的重要实物资料。为了解克孜尔石窟第189窟前发现的蓝色颜料,采用X射线衍射(XRD)对其成分进行分析,采用拉曼、扫描电镜能谱仪(SEM-EDS)将其与第189窟壁画蓝色样品的元素组成及物相进行对比,采用酶联免疫吸附测定(ELISA)、透射傅立叶红外光谱(FTIR)对其可能含有的胶结材料进行分析。结果表明,该出土蓝色颜料样品为青金石,胶结材料为植物胶。研究表明,通过多种分析手段联合使用,可以更全面、客观地了解分析对象的各种信息,为今后克孜尔石窟壁画制作材料及制作工艺的分析提供经验和借鉴。     

中国古代青金石颜料的电镜分析

运用扫描电子显微镜、电子探针微量分析等仪器分析手段对甘肃敦煌莫高窟、西千佛洞、永靖炳灵寺、天水麦积山、青海乐都瞿昙寺等地石窟寺、寺院彩绘艺术中所应用的青金石颜料进行了显微形貌和成分分析。结果表明：从西秦、北魏、西魏、北周、隋、唐、五代、宋、西夏、元、明十余个朝代,千余年间,不同地区所用青金石颜料的微量元素大致相同。在敦煌莫高窟、天水麦积山石窟样品中发现了Zn元素,经XRD分析证实,颜料中有ZnO存在。     

Identification of colourants in icons of the Cretan School of iconography using Raman spectroscopy and liquid chromatography

The stratigraphies of twenty five (25) samples removed from twenty (20) icons of the Cretan School of iconography are studied using Optical Microscopy and micro-Raman spectroscopy. The objects are dated in 15th–17th c. and belong to the collection of the Benaki Museum, Athens, Greece. Cinnabar, red ochre, minium, yellow ochre, azurite, malachite, lapis lazuli, lead white, carbon black, and indigo are identified in the cross-sections of the icon samples using Raman spectroscopy.     

5,000 years old Egyptian iron beads made from hammered meteoritic iron

The earliest known iron artefacts are nine small beads securely dated to circa 3200 BC, from two burials in Gerzeh, northern Egypt. We show that these beads were made from meteoritic iron, and shaped by careful hammering the metal into thin sheets before rolling them into tubes. The study demonstrates the ability of neutron and X-ray methods to determine the nature of the material even after complete corrosion of the iron metal. The iron beads were strung into a necklace together with other exotic minerals such as lapis lazuli, gold and carnelian, revealing the status of meteoritic iron as a special material on a par with precious metal and gem stones. The results confirm that already in the fourth millennium BC metalworkers had mastered the smithing of meteoritic iron, an iron–nickel alloy much harder and more brittle than the more commonly worked copper. This is of wider significance as it demonstrates that metalworkers had already nearly two millennia of experience to hot-work meteoritic iron when iron smelting was introduced. This knowledge was essential for the development of iron smelting, which produced metal in a solid state process and hence depended on this ability in order to replace copper and bronze as the main utilitarian metals.     

14世纪以前钴蓝在西亚和中国的运用——兼谈元青花的产生

本文探讨了14世纪以前钴蓝釉料在西亚和中国的使用情况,指出钴蓝在西亚有着悠久的使用传统,出于对青金石的崇尚,钴蓝釉料被广泛运用在模仿青佥石色彩的人工制品上,主要包括釉面砖、玻璃、陶器等。而在14世纪以前的中国,钴蓝釉料的使用出现较晚,运用也缺乏普遍性、延续性。通过西亚和中国情况的对比,笔者对元青花在14世纪得以突然勃兴的原因．提出了新的见解。     

ANALYSIS OF NASRID POLYCHROME CARPENTRY AT THE HALL OF THE MEXUAR PALACE,ALHAMBRA COMPLEX (GRANADA,SPAIN), COMBINING MICROSCOPIC,CHROMATOGRAPHIC AND SPECTROSCOPIC METHODS*†

The pigments, binders and execution techniques used by the Nasrids (1238–1492) to polychrome carpentry in the Hall of the Mexuar Palace at the Alhambra (Granada, Spain) were studied using optical microscopy, scanning electron microscopy with EDX analysis, selective staining techniques and gas chromatography – mass spectrometry. This pioneering investigation presents the first results of a research project devoted to filling gaps in the knowledge of Nasrid art, traditionally approached by stylistic studies. Moreover, it is essential for the polychromy conservation of the studied artworks, and will help to clarify historical and painting uncertainties in the Alhambra monument. The palette consists of a limited range of colours: white (lead‐base pigment), red (cinnabar and red lead), blue (lapis lazuli), black (carbon‐based) and false gold (golden tin). Tempera grassa was the painting technique identified. Two types of grounds were used: (i) gypsum in calligraphy decoration for the false gold technique, and (ii) synthetic minium in geometric drawings in carpentry. Organic insulating layers of linseed oil were used between paint strata. Artists applied synthetic minium to protect the wood (Juglans regia and conifer) against attack by xylophages. To lighten the surface darkened by this ground layer, powdered tin was added to achieve a metallic lustre.     

GEMSTONES FROM VIGNA BARBERINI AT THE PALATINE HILL (ROME,ITALY)*

This study investigates 25 gemstones (23 intaglios and two undecorated cabochon, used between the third quarter of the first century ad and the second century ad ) found in the archaeological excavations performed at ‘Vigna Barberini’, in the north‐east sector of the Palatine Hill in Rome. The analytical results obtained by means of SR‐XRD, Raman micro‐spectroscopy and PIXE measurements provided, in a totally non‐destructive mode, unambiguous characterization of the gemstones. The collection from Vigna Barberini consists of two colourless chalcedonies, 11 carnelians, one sard, three Cr‐bearing chalcedonies, two nicoli, two orange jaspers, one heliotrope, one almandine garnet, one peridote and one lapis lazuli. Given the lack of analytical data discriminating between different sources, the worldwide occurrence of all these gemstones makes it difficult to reconstruct preferential routes for their commercial trade. However, the methodological approach followed for this research should be of help for the identification of discrimination parameters for provenance investigation.     

ARCHAEOLOGICAL,STYLISTIC AND SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH ON 11TH–13TH CENTURY AD PAINTED FRAGMENTS FROM THE SAN GIOVANNI BATTISTA CHURCH IN CEVIO (SWITZERLAND)

The painted fragments collected during the archaeological excavation campaign in the San Giovanni Battista church in Cevio represent a unique patrimony of Romanesque wall painting in Tessin, Switzerland, having a strong stylistic linkage with the Lombardic art of the same period. The archaeological and stylistic research allowed the fragments to be dated between the 11th and 13th centuries ad and to group them in three chronological phases. The scientific research (p‐XRF, OM, SEM–EDS, FTIR and XRD) was aimed at characterizing the pigments and the pictorial techniques used. Important changes occurred in terms of some pigments used during the 11th and 12th centuries: in particular, azurite was used to decorate the earlier wall paintings while lapis lazuli was used for the 12th‐century ones. During the second period, lead‐based pigments (lead white and minium) were introduced into the palette. The use of natural yellow and red ochres and green earth was common for the three periods. The fresco technique was generally used, except for the application of azurite and lead‐based pigments, where the a secco technique was adopted. The integrated research is a contribution to the knowledge of Romanesque art in the Insubric Region.     

道教人物画像颜料的原位无损分析

利用漫反射光谱、显微激光拉曼光谱和能量色散X射线荧光技术,对一张道教人物画像的颜料进行原位无损鉴别,结果显示,画像主要使用了朱砂、巴黎绿、群青、雌黄、碳黑和铅白。为了明确群青是人工合成还是天然颜料,采用X射线衍射对画像蓝色颜料进行物相分析,结果表明,该颜料确为合成群青。由于群青和巴黎绿均为人工合成颜料,其首次合成时间分别为1828年和1814年,清代晚期引入我国,由此推断该画像应在清代晚期以后绘制。这一研究表明,上述三项技术联用非常适合于易损和不允许取样的古字画颜料的无损分析鉴定,在纸张类文物分析中具有广阔的应用前景。     

Material Messages: A Reassessment of the Double Portrait of Mary Tudor and Charles Brandon

The double portrait of Mary Tudor, sister of King Henry VIII of England, and Charles Brandon, Duke of Suffolk, has traditionally been dated to 1515. This attribution has led the portrait to be widely regarded as the earliest depiction of the style of headdress known as a French hood being worn by a member of the English court. However, the date of 1515 does not take into account the circumstances surrounding the marriage of the two sitters, circumstances that would have prevented the portrait from being commissioned at this time. It also ignores features of the sitters’ attire, which display elements of later 1530s fashions. Using both documentary and pictorial evidence, this paper will seek to propose a later creation date of 1532, establish a different reading of the portrait and reassess our understanding of the French hood at the English court in the early sixteenth century.     

The Intentional Use of Lead–tin Orange in Indian Islamic Glazes and Its Preliminary Characterization

We describe the historical appearance, composition and texture of a little‐known orange pigment in 17th‐century northern India. The pigment shares similarities with lead–tin yellow type II, but has between 6 and 7 wt% zinc oxide instead of silica as a minor element in its structure, in addition to the dominant lead and tin oxide. The consistency of its occurrence and composition across several important and highly decorated monuments and relatively wide chronological and geographical ranges of use indicate the controlled and intentional production of this pigment. We propose to use the name lead–tin orange for this material, indicating its similarity to lead–tin yellow but highlighting its independent character and distinct colour.     

甘泉金代画像砖墓现场保护与整体搬迁

为了配合基本建设,对甘泉金代画像砖墓进行了整体搬迁工作。采用红外、紫外照相,便携XRF、非接触式色度仪等检测方法在传统画面信息提取的基础上,进一步揭示了画面的信息,发现画像砖和彩绘的颜色以红、白、黑为主色,黄色颜料有荧光反应,初步可确定有赤铁矿、铅丹颜料的使用;病害主要为起甲、空鼓、裂隙、酥粉等。考古现场第一时间控制了墓室小环境和病害,采用泡沫板、复合板、木龙骨对墓室内部进行了整体支撑加固,用石膏麻布、不同型号的钢材对墓室外部进行固型和加固,并在底部插入槽钢和H钢将墓室焊接为一个整体进行吊装和运输。本工作克服了该画像砖墓墓室多、体量大、吊装和搬迁不易的难题,是目前整体搬迁体量最大的墓葬,为同类工作的开展提供了示范。     

The Tomb of the Three Brothers in Palmyra: The Use of Mimetite,A Rare Yellow Pigment,in A Rich Decoration

The wall paintings of the Tomb of the Three Brothers in Palmyra display a very rich Greco‐Roman iconography. The study of the painting reveals the use of a great variety of pigments, including Egyptian blue and an extremely rare bright yellow pigment, mimetite, of which no other traces are known for this period. This pigment was identified through the combined use of two methods of analysis, scanning electron microscopy associated with X‐ray microanalysis (SEM–EDS) and X‐ray micro‐diffraction (XRD). The varied chromatic palette used underlines the refinement and the particular care given to these decorations. Notable differences have been found between the pigments of the decorations of the arch and those used for the rest of the chamber.     

Kirchliche olavustradition bei theodricus Monachus

This article discusses the ideological use of Castor and Pollux in the succession policy during the Imperial period with special reference to an evaluation of the Augustan rededication of the temple of Castor and Pollux in the Forum Romanum. There is no evidence of a corresponding function during the preceding centuries but the Dioscuri were known as helpers on the battlefield and thus they had become a symbol of victory. As future emperors the designated heirs were to secure the existence of the Roman empire through the maintenance of the military position and success and thus the parallel to Castor and Pollux were obvious. Also the Sidus Iulium is briefly dealt with. It appears to be a direct continuation of the Hellenistic use of the star, where this symbol of the Dioscuri for the first time was combined with the portrait of a mortal ruler to emphasize his divine status.     

‘Defending the race’: the Italian reinvention of the Hottentot Venus during Fascism

Abstract In 1938 the regime's popular periodical La Difesa della Razza published the portrait of Saartjie Baartman (a Khoisan woman known to the western world as ‘The Hottentot Venus’) to discourage miscegenation in the empire of Italian East Africa. But by 1938, Italian public and scientific interest in the Hottentot Venus had long faded away. In addition, readily available photographs of Italo-Eritreans could have been used to show the ‘outcome’ of miscegenation. Why then did the regime's organ publish a portrait of ‘The Hottentot Venus’? This article addresses this question, and explores how Baartman's story could serve the regime's aim of forging a new ‘racial consciousness’ among Italians. By focusing on the transformation of scientific discourses from the 1850s to the late 1930s, and on their silences, the article illuminates the process through which some of the regime's anthropologists constructed a new, ‘made in Italy’ story for the Hottentot Venus. Deliberately leaving out all the main issues long debated during the previous century, they turned this figure into an empty icon to support Fascist colonial obsession with the purity and prestige of the Italian race.