The political ecology of water memory: Contending narratives of past hydraulic infrastructures in Barcelona (2015–2021)

In the context of ecological emergency and crisis of representation of the capitalist democracy, the battles over water management have become ever more politicised: who is to administer water resources, how, and with what legitimacy? This article examines a disregarded dimension of the recent water conflict in Barcelona by looking into the politics of memory as part of a struggle for legitimacy between the private water company Agbar, and Barcelona en Comú (BeC), the political platform governing the city since 2015, and defending the ‘remunicipalisation’ of water. By combining memory studies and critical discourse analysis we pay attention to the dynamic resignification of the hydraulic infrastructure as spaces or “sites of memory” (lieux de mémoire; Nora, 1998). Barcelona en Comú narrative retrieves a forgotten past of local sites and experiences in public management of water. In contrast, Agbar defends its legitimacy by advancing a narrative of linear progress and social inclusion that re-signifies its 150-year long history and co-opts key “empty signifiers” (Laclau, 2005) from the discourse of the Indignados and BeC. Theoretically, we advance that a temporal turn in political ecology and geography, complementing the concern with spatiality, could usefully draw on memory studies to analyse the growing memorialization of water discourses and sites, as well as their political significance. The article thus investigates a question that has not been systematically explored by political ecologists: how the entanglement of space and historical memory is mobilized in the conflict over the use and management of the environment.     

Using airborne small-footprint laser scanner data for detection of cultural remains in forests: an experimental study of the effects of pulse density and DTM smoothing

Cultural remains are laborious to register by means of field surveys. Thus, in recent years several trials using remote sensing data to detect cultural remains have been carried out. The most promising remote sensing technique for such purposes is airborne laser scanning (ALS) from which digital terrain models (DTM) that enable visual interpretations of anomalies on the ground are generated. Although it has been documented previously that ALS is a powerful data source for detection of cultural remains, it has not yet been carried out studies that focus on the effects of the point density of the ALS data and properties of the subsequent generation of the DTM on the detection success of cultural remains. Thus, this study aimed at analyzing these effects by letting four experienced archeologists interpret DTMs generated from ALS data with point densities of 1 p m⁻², 5 p m⁻², and 10 p m⁻², each with three different levels of DTM smoothing. The experiment was conducted according to a randomized complete block design and the analyses were carried out using analysis of variance. The results showed that there was a significant improvement in the detection success when the point density was increased from 1 p m⁻² to 5 p m⁻². There were also some improvements when increasing the point density further to 10 p m⁻², but they were less pronounced. Furthermore, the results showed that the DTM smoothing did not have any significant effect on the detection success.     

Labour Migration,Capitalist Accumulation,and Feudal Reproduction: A Historical Analysis from the Eastern Gangetic Plains

This paper engages with the long‐running debate on the transition from farm‐based livelihoods to capitalism in the context of labour migration. Tracing the historic evolution of modes of production in the peripheral Mithilanchal region of the Eastern Gangetic Plains, it notes how the economic processes which are today driving the peasantry into the labour force through migration are not directly connected to the process of capitalist accumulation in the diverse locales where labour is employed, as is somtimes implied in the research on classic situations of “accumulation by dispossession”. The entry of the peasantry into the surplus labour pool is instead linked firstly, with a complex convergence of internal changes within a non‐capitalist feudal mode of production on an economic, cultural and political level, and secondly, with the stresses brought about in the wake of expanding capitalist markets. The paper notes however that migrant labour still generates substantial profits for capitalism with a sharing of surplus between the latter, and landlord‐money lenders. It argues that the relationship between modes of production in this context, is neither functional nor coincidental, and is linked instead with larger – at times opportunistic – class alliances which have evolved to fit the current political‐economic conjuncture.     

What exactly do REDD+ projects produce? A materialist analysis of carbon offset production from a REDD+ project in Cambodia

This article attempts to re-ground analyses of carbon markets by examining the material relations of production of a REDD + project in Cambodia. It focuses on how surplus value is extracted from labour at various points in the production chain of Verified Carbon Units (VCUs). Using extensive field work conducted over three years on a REDD + project in northern Cambodia I argue that VCUs are neither actual avoided units of deforestation and emissions, nor mere imagined or socially constructed commodities. Rather VCUs are packages of technical and affective claims attached to particular REDD + projects which are created through material labour processes. Only by examining the use-values that are created through these labour processes can demand for VCUs be properly understood. This article will start by giving a background to the Oddar Meanchey REDD + project (OMREDD + project). It will then examine the writing of the project document and examine the verification process and consider how these formed critical parts of the commodity production process. After that it will examine how the project collapsed on the ground and yet VCUs were still sold in the market. Finally the article will consider how the claims of the OMREDD + project were challenged by critical work and how future interventions against REDD + projects can successfully undermine the claims of REDD + projects and the extraction of surplus value.     

The cultural landscape near the ancient city of Tharros (central West Sardinia): vegetation changes and human impact

The evolution of the cultural landscape in coastal western Sardinia is investigated by means of pollen analysis in the Mistras Lagoon sediments, near the ancient city of Tharros, with particular attention to changes in evergreen vegetation and the impact of human activity. The pollen diagram, spanning the time interval from 5300 to 1600 cal BP, documents the influence of man, climate, and geomorphic dynamics on the evolution of a semi-open evergreen vegetation landscape and variations in extent of a salt-marsh environment. Anthropogenic indicators and microcharcoals concur in depicting increased land use coinciding with the Nuragic, Phoenician, Punic and Roman dominations. Pollen data, along with archaeobotanical evidence, suggest a prevailing arable farming economy, vocated to Vitis and cereals exploitation, during the Nuragic phase until 2400 cal BP, replaced since then by a prevailing stock rearing economy. Between 2050 and 1600 cal BP, a less intensive human impact on the landscape is profiled, consistently with the archaeologically documented abandonment of the rural villages in favour of a slow urbanization, experienced by the Sinis territory in Imperial times. The pollen record provides new insights into the history of important economic plants in the Mediterranean, such as Vitis, Olea and Quercus suber. The results of the pollen analysis reveal how the records of these taxa are primarily influenced by the cultural development of the Sinis region and secondarily by dynamics involving the natural companion vegetation.     

Identity,Gender Relations and Community Life in the History of the Migration of Italian Anarchists to Brazil (1890–1922)

This article investigates how women within the anarchist movement participated in the great migratory wave which saw millions of Italians leave Italy to emigrate to Brazil between the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. It analyses how this participation developed in the country of arrival, and in particular whether the ideals of freedom and emancipation relating to the so-called ‘women's question’ supported by the anarchists were realised in the context of the migration project. It focuses on the comparison between the experience of women of the first generation, who were an integral part of a family migration project that left little room for individual growth, and young women of the second generation, raised in Brazil within anarchist communities and on the basis of the ideals that inspired them. It was the opportunity to grow in a context culturally inspired by the principles of freedom and autonomy that allowed some of these younger women to determine themselves, despite the generally conservative reality even within anarchist communities. This article seeks to reassess and deepen themes that previous historiography has only partially assessed due to a difficult and fragmented source based on female migration, which has often led scholars to fall back on the unfounded statement that there had only been low female participation in anarchist migration to Brazil.     

Prehistoric land use at an archaeological hot-spot (the rock art park of Campo Lameiro,NW Spain) inferred from charcoal,synanthropic pollen and non-pollen palynomorph proxies

Pollen, non-pollen palynomorphs and charcoal from a colluvial soil surrounded by prehistoric petroglyphs (Campo Lameiro, NW Spain) were studied in order to assess the nature of human activities and their impact on Holocene vegetation patterns. Several phases of anthropogenic impact were observed. (i) Between 7.6 and 6.5 ka cal BP, synanthropic taxa (Urtica dioica type, Plantago lanceolata type) and coprophilous fungi (e.g. Sporormiella-type) are indicative of early (pre-agricultural) creation of small patches of pasture using fire, possibly for incipient animal husbandry or as part of a deliberate strategy to improve game availability. Such activities only had a minor effect on the deciduous Quercus-dominated forest established earlier during the Holocene Thermal Maximum. (ii) Between 5.9 and 4.8 ka cal BP a more intense signal indicative of pastoral activity was detected, corresponding to the Neolithic period. (iii) Between 4.8 and 3.4 ka cal BP, which fits within the hypothetical timeframe of petroglyph creation, the synanthropic and humidity (e.g. Cyperaceae, Mougeotia) indicators diminished while charcoal concentration increased, which can be explained by Mid-Holocene cooling/drying (Neoglaciation) in combination with reduced human impact, or by non-pastoral activities in the area possibly in association with the development of the rock art culture, converting pasture to protected open ground through anthropogenic fires. (iv) During the Late Bronze Age and Early Iron Age (3.4–2.5 ka cal BP), grazing pressure and fire regime intensity are high, coinciding with evidence of regional forest regression, despite an amelioration in climate. (v) Later phases, not corresponding to prehistoric rock art contexts, include a phase of heavy grazing and reduced fire frequency (from ca. 2.5 to 1.2 ka cal BP) as well as the near complete elimination of the deciduous woodland, the expansion of ericaceous shrubland and the evidence of local agriculture and afforestation. These results are consistent with earlier studies in the area and highlight the spatial heterogeneity in the vegetation especially during periods of prehistoric anthropogenic interference.     

Multi-method (TL and OSL), multi-material (quartz and flint) dating of the Mousterian site of Roc de Marsal (Dordogne,France): correlating Neanderthal occupations with the climatic variability of MIS 5–3

Roc de Marsal has yielded numerous remains of Mousterian occupations, including lithics, fauna and combustion features. It was made famous by the discovery of the skeleton of a Neanderthal child. Given the need to date the sequence, TL and OSL were applied on heated flints and quartz, and OSL on unheated quartz. Chronological results combined with palaeoenvironmental data – faunal remains and micromorphological features in the sediments from the cave, pollen proxies and faunal remains from the region – allowed us to place climate variations in southwest France on a numerical time scale. Denticulate Mousterian occupations were dated to the middle of MIS 4 (65–70 ka) and Quina layers either to the very end of MIS 4 or to MIS 3. Interestingly, a faunal pattern showing a mix of red deer, roe deer and reindeer was found to have occurred during MIS 4, which was shown to be consistent with data from other similar sites in southwest France.     

The use of magnetometry and pole-dipole resistivity for locating Nabataean Hawar archeological site in the SW-Jordan

This paper is focused on the joint use of magnetometry and pole-dipole electrical resistivity geophysical methods for assessing their capability in the detection of a prehistoric site in the southwestern Jordan. The survey area, Auara, was built in the first century BC during the Nabataean time and is located in a very arid environment framed on the east and north by white sandstone hills. In order to test this site, a number of magnetic stations and two pole-dipole resistivity traverses were carried out in the investigated area. Magnetic data were taken with one sensor at height of 0.8 m along survey lines spaced 1 m apart. Resistivity measurements were carried out utilizing the pole-dipole array along two profiles. A total of 32 geoelectrical stations spaced 2 m were made along the two profiles. Magnetic method found structure with contrasting physical properties to those of the surrounding material. The archeological interpretation of such structure is in terms of rectangular cistern (pool) with dimensions 26 × 16 m. A probable location of two buried walls spaced 16 m are indicated by low resistivity values.     

Single-grain OSL dating at La Grotte des Contrebandiers (‘Smugglers’ Cave’), Morocco: improved age constraints for the Middle Paleolithic levels

Optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) measurements of individual quartz grains are reported for Middle Paleolithic (MP) or Middle Stone Age (MSA) deposits in La Grotte des Contrebandiers, Morocco. Single-grain measurements enable rejection of grains that may lead to under- or over-estimation of age due to malign luminescence properties or remobilisation of grains after burial. We identified the former using a range of experimental procedures and objective rejection criteria. Three post-depositional factors influenced the distribution pattern of equivalent dose (D_e) values for the remaining single grains: the disintegration of roof spall liberating unbleached, older grains into otherwise well-bleached sediments; the intrusion of a small number of younger grains from the overlying Upper Paleolithic deposits; and small-scale differences in the beta dose received by individual grains. Roof spall contamination was a significant problem, so we characterised the OSL signals and obtained D_e values for the calcareous sandstone in which the cave is formed, which allowed bedrock-derived grains in the MP/MSA deposits to be identified and rejected prior to age determination. We collected 31 samples from the MP/MSA deposits, and were able to calculate ages for 30 of them. These ages suggest that MP/MSA occupation of Contrebandiers was restricted to the interval between about 120 and 90 ka ago (Marine Isotope Stages 5d to 5b). Weighted mean OSL ages were obtained for samples associated with archaeologically sterile deposits at the base of the excavations (126 ± 9 ka), followed by two phases of the Moroccan Mousterian (122 ± 5 and 115 ± 3 ka), interspersed with archaeologically sterile deposits (112 ± 4 ka). The base and top of the Aterian were dated to 107 ± 4 and 96 ± 4 ka, respectively. Based on the grand weighted mean ages of 116 ± 3 and 103 ± 3 ka for the Moroccan Mousterian and Aterian at Contrebandiers, we suggest that these two industries may be separated by an occupation hiatus of up to 13 ± 3 ka at this site. Our single-grain OSL chronology confirms previous age estimates obtained for Contrebandiers and other sites in the vicinity, but are generally more precise and stratigraphically more coherent, due to the inherent advantages of measuring individual quartz grains and rejecting contaminant and other unsuitable grains before age determination.     

Palaeoenvironmental significance of grain-size distribution of river flood deposits: a study of the archaeological sites of the Apengjiang River Drainage,upper Yangtze region,Chongqing, China

The grain-size distribution (based on cumulative probability curves) in the sediments produced by potential palaeofloods at the Shiniusi archaeological site is similar to that of modern flood sediments from the Wujiang River Drainage in the upper Yangtze River. There is an obvious pattern in the curves, with two segments, and the mean grain size (Mz), standard deviations (σ1), skewness, and kurtosis are all similar. Combined with the AMS¹⁴C dating data and the ages judged based on the presence of cultural remains, our data suggests frequent palaeoflood events within the Wujiang River Drainage. We hypothesize the existence of seven high flood possibility layers in the QST4 unit from Shiniusi archaeological site: during the periods of the Ming Dynasty (1368–1644 AD) to the Qing Dynasty (1616–1911 AD), and the end of the Eastern Zhou Dynasty (770 BC–256 BC) to the Shang Dynasty (1600–1100 BC). We also hypothesize ten high flood probability layers in the QST2 unit from Shiniusi archaeological site: during the periods of the Ming Dynasty to the Qing Dynasty, the periods of Song Dynasty (960–1279 AD) to the Yuan Dynasty (1206–1368 AD), as well as during the Han Dynasty (207 BC–220 AD) to the Eastern Zhou Dynasty (770 BC–256 BC). These results are consistent with palaeoflood events inferred from pollen and spore analysis and from historical records in other rivers.     

A Bayesian AMS C chronology of the Classic Maya Center of Uxbenká, Belize

Archaeologists require precise chronologies of cultural change to understand the nature and timing, and causes and effects, of ecological and social transformations. The Uxbenká Archaeological Project (UAP) has made chronology building a main goal, employing epigraphic data, artifact seriation, and high-precision AMS ¹⁴C dating. With more than 60 ¹⁴C dates with measurement errors below ±25 ¹⁴C yr, primarily on single charcoal specimens, Uxbenká may be the most intensively dated Classic Period site in the tropical Maya Lowlands. Here we take the next step, combining this rich chronometric dataset with associated stratigraphic information in OxCal's Bayesian framework to generate a high-resolution chronology of Uxbenká's early development and expansion in southern Belize. We show how archaeologists may take advantage of complex architectural stratigraphy to constrain broad calibrated ranges during the Classic Period, and to estimate dates for observed construction events that can not be directly dated (e.g., clearing/leveling plazas, laying plaster floors, renovating/rebuilding structural elements). Our analysis confirms the antiquity of the ceremonial Stela Plaza (Group A), where first construction is estimated between 60 cal BC and cal AD 220 and is associated with a Pre-Classic structure obscured by later construction and reorientation of the group to a N-S alignment ca. AD 150–310. The analysis also indicates initial leveling and construction at plaza Group B from cal AD 60–310 and Group D from cal AD 20–240, both earlier than previously assumed. Though Late Classic contexts are not as well represented by direct dates, architectural modifications are documented at all three plaza groups after AD 550, including the extensive plastering, laying paving stones, and construction of facades on existing structures. The resulting chronology revises our previous thinking on the mode of settlement and development of Classic Maya society at Uxbenká and indicates specific areas of investigation to elucidate events in the Late and Terminal Classic at the site, including political and social fragmentation and the abandonment of the urban core late in the Classic Period.     

Dating North America's oldest petroglyphs,Winnemucca Lake subbasin,Nevada

On the west side of the Winnemucca Lake subbasin, Nevada, distinctive deeply carved meter-scale petroglyphs are closely spaced, forming panels on boulder-sized surfaces of a partially collapsed tufa mound. The large, complex motifs at this side are formed by deeply carved lines and cupules. A carbonate crust deposited between 10 200 and 9800 calibrated years B.P. (ka) coats petroglyphs at the base of the mound between elevations of 1202 and 1206 m. Petroglyphs above the carbonate crust are carved into a branching form of carbonate that dates to 14.8 ka. Radiocarbon dates on a multiple-layered algal tufa on the east side of the basin, which formed at an elevation of 1205 m, as well as a sediment-core-based total inorganic carbon record for the period 17.0–9.5 ka indicate that water level in the Winnemucca Lake subbasin was constrained by spill over the Emerson Pass Sill (1207 m) for most of the time between 12.9 ± 0.3 and ≥9.2 ka. These and other data indicate that the lake in the Winnemucca Lake subbasin fell beneath its spill point between 14.8 and 13.2 ka and also between 11.3 and 10.5 ka (or between 11.5 and 11.1 ka), exposing the base of the collapsed tufa mound to petroglyph carving. The tufa-based ¹⁴C record supports decreased lake levels between 14.8–13.2 ka and 11.3–10.5 ka. Native American artifacts found in the Lahontan Basin date to the latter time interval. This does not rule out the possibility that petroglyph carving occurred between 14.8 and 13.2 ka when Pyramid Lake was relatively shallow and Winnemucca Lake had desiccated.     

Historical ecology of late Holocene sea otters (Enhydra lutris) from northern British Columbia: isotopic and zooarchaeological perspectives

We examined the isotopic composition (δ¹³C and δ¹⁵N) of sea otter (Enhydra lutris) bone collagen from ten late Holocene (ca. 5200 years BP–AD 1900) archaeological sites in northern British Columbia (BC), Canada. Because sea otters are now extinct from much of this region and have not fully recolonized their former range (e.g. Haida Gwaii and most of northern BC) these data represent an important first step towards better understanding sea otter foraging ecology in BC. The isotopic data suggest a diet composed primarily of benthic invertebrates, with a very low reliance on epibenthic fish. There is very low isotopic and thus inter-individual dietary variability in Holocene BC sea otters during the late Holocene. Furthermore, zooarchaeological abundance data suggest that otters represented a widespread and significant focus of aboriginal hunting practices on the northern BC coast during the mid- to late-Holocene. The consistent reliance on a small number of low-trophic level prey and limited dietary variability in Holocene BC sea otters may reflect top-down impacts on otter populations by aboriginal peoples. As part of our assessment of sea otter diet, we review trophic discrimination factors (Δ¹³C and Δ¹⁵N) for bone collagen from published literature and find marked variability, with mean values of +3.7 ± 1.6 for Δ¹³C (n = 21) and +3.6 ± 1.3 for Δ¹⁵N (n = 15).     

Genetic analysis of wheat landraces enables the location of the first agricultural sites in Italy to be identified

We typed five microsatellite loci in 52 landraces of Italian emmer wheat to determine if genetic analysis of cereals can provide information relevant to the spread of agriculture. Each of the five loci was polymorphic with 43 allele combinations identified in the 52 landraces. The allele combinations fell into two groups. Group 1 comprised 27 genotypes found in 42 landraces and Group 2 comprised 15 genotypes found in 10 landraces. The landraces with Group 1 genotypes showed a strong correlation between geographical and genetic distances (r = 0.601, p < 0.001) but those with Group 2 genotypes did not (r = 0.116, p = 0.244). We inferred that the Group 1 landraces might therefore retain a phylogeographical structure that reflects ancient events. We present a phylogeographical model for the spread of agriculture that enables the point of origin of crop cultivation to be predicted by comparison between the genetic and geographical distances between landraces. We applied this model to the Group 1 landraces by positioning 131 hypothetical points of origin around the coastline and northern border of Italy. The highest correlation coefficients between genetic and geographical distances were seen for hypothetical points of origin located on the coast of northern Puglia. We repeated the analysis with 1040 hypothetical points of origin located within the Italian peninsula. Again, the highest correlation coefficients were located in northern Puglia. These predicted points of origin correspond with the location of the earliest agricultural sites in Italy. The results show that plant genetics can be used to study the spread of agriculture.     

Experimentally produced glass compared with that occurring at The Torr, NW Scotland, UK: vitrification through biotite melting

It is proposed that the vitrification in some Iron Age forts in NW Scotland can be explained through decomposition of micas (largely biotite) giving melts that react with or dissolve quartz and crystallise orthopyroxene and feldspars, so equating with the reaction biotite + quartz = sanidine + orthopyroxene + liquid. A sample of Moine semi-pelite has been experimentally melted at c. 850 °C demonstrating this breakdown reaction. A preserved thermal gradient across the sample reveals the progressive degradation of biotite towards the melting (upper) surface. Degradation is evident from the initial emphasis of mica cleavages in grains at the bottom of the sample, and then appearance and progressive increase in size of bubbles associated with biotite and melt towards the top of the sample. A chocolate-brown melt was produced as a coating on the upper surface and along micaceous layers. A near equivalent sample was located from the fort at The Torr that, whilst being more thoroughly affected by heat, with no unaffected biotite, preserved similar textures. Compositions of original Moine minerals are used to constrain the melts produced and melt evolution is tracked through quenched crystals. These include ternary feldspars as well as sanidine, spinels and orthopyroxene. Spot geochemical evidence demonstrates the heterogeneity of the melts, plus varying contributions of Ca and Na that could be attributed to the onset of reactions involving feldspars and other minerals from the original assemblage. It is thus concluded that a similar temperature to that of c. 850 °C derived in the experiment was reached in the vitrification process at The Torr in order to produce the glass observed.     

Human activity and its impact on the landscape at the Xishanping site in the western Loess Plateau during 4800–4300 cal yr BP based on the fossil charcoal record

The taxonomic identification of fossil charcoal can be a useful archaeobotanical tool, as it can reveal information about prehistoric humans' use of plant resources and other factors. In this study, we quantify the fossil charcoal in a cultural sequence from Xishanping in the western Loess Plateau of China representing 4800–4300 cal yr BP to consider aspects of humans' impact on this landscape. The fossil charcoal assemblages reveal that the relative abundances of Picea, Betula, Acer, Ulmus and Quercus decreased markedly after 4600 cal yr BP. This suggests a marked decline in the mixed coniferous-broadleaved forest after this time. Concurrently, an increasing abundance of Bambusoideae charcoal has been suggested to reflect the expansion of the bamboo forest. The marked changes in the vegetation after 4600 cal yr BP were not obviously influenced by climate; they may be a better reflection of the results of human activity. Furthermore, other genera that provide important resources to humans also increased after 4600 cal yr BP, including Castanea, Cerasus, Padus and Diospyros. It is nearly certain that nuts and berries were an important food resource and that fruit trees were managed by prehistoric humans in the late Neolithic. This work suggests that the scale of prehistoric human impact on the western Loess Plateau landscape during the late Neolithic was much greater than was previously believed.     

Pottery firing temperatures: a new method for determining the firing temperature of ceramics and burnt clay

A new method for determining the maximum firing temperature of ceramics and burnt clay is presented. The technique relies on measuring the magnetic susceptibility on a step-wise re-fired sample. The validity of the method has been tested by determining firing temperatures of two sets of clay samples fired at temperatures ranging from 400 to 1000 °C. Aliquots of the same samples have been studied petrographically by optical microscopy on thin sections and analyzed by powder X-ray diffraction in order to monitor structural and mineralogical changes as a function of temperature. The method is demonstrated on samples from four geographically widely different sites and it is applied to a larger set of ceramics of Late (ca. AD 900–AD 1450) and Inca (ca. AD 1480–AD 1532) periods from the Northwestern Argentine region, dating to a limited period of time prior to the fall of the Inca Empire. The method is shown to be a powerful tool in revealing archaeological information about the change in firing technologies in the pre-Hispanic societies in the Andean area through time.     

MATHEMATICAL MODELLING OF THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN NEOLITHIC SITES AND THE RIVERS IN XI’AN (SHAANXI PROVINCE,CHINA)*

Based on analyses of the ecological environments of the Neolithic sites along the Chan and Ba Rivers in the Xi’an area (Shaanxi Province, China), it was found that the characteristic factors of the sites had a very close relationship with the nearby river. The characteristic factors of Neolithic sites have been analysed and defined as mathematical parameters by statistical methods. A mathematical model of the human–land relationship between Neolithic sites and rivers has been established using the stepwise regression procedure REGRESS in SPSS^®. The mathematical model is Y = 496.153 – 4.833X₁ + 113.692X3 + 725.097X₅ – 27.683X₃X₄. It shows that the distance (Y) from a site to a river has a marked relationship with the site area (X₁), the river flux (X₃), the site location (X₅) and river ratio drop (X₄). The model shows that the relationship between the sites and the river is in accordance with the conclusions of archaeological research. The mathematical model not only offers theoretical guidance for the archaeological excavation of Neolithic sites in Xi’an, but also contributes to the archaeological environmental research of Xi’an Neolithic sites.      

Zooarchaeological perspectives on the Chinese Early and Late Paleolithic from the Ma’anshan site (Guizhou,South China)

Ma’anshan is a Paleolithic cave site in the Guizhou province of southern China. The total area of the excavations is ca. 48 m², and the cultural deposit is divided into two layers representing the Chinese Late Paleolithic and the later part of the Early Paleolithic. The upper layer dates between 19,295  BP and 31,155 BP by AMS technique, and the lower layer is dated to around 53,000 BP by U-Series technique. Thousands of bone fragments were recovered from the two layers. Species abundance, bone surface modifications, skeletal element representation, and mortality patterns were studied in an investigation of assemblage formation history and patterns of prey selection and meat consumption by hominins. Interpretations of the faunal data are strengthened by reference to experimental studies and ethnoarchaeological data. The zooarchaeological data indicate that the later occupants of Ma’anshan Cave hunted mainly medium and small game animals, while the earlier occupants tended to prey upon larger animals. In the later period, hominins also made fuller use of the carcasses. The breadth of the meat diet increased with time, due to the inclusion of quick small animals (bamboo rats and birds) in the later period. The differences between the two faunal assemblages are consistent with the chronologic boundary currently drawn between the Chinese Early and Late Paleolithic ca. 30–27 ka BP, based on technological and other evidence.