Hydraulic Evaluation of the Design and Operation of Ancient Rome's Anio Novus Aqueduct

This paper evaluates conveyance and flow characteristics for the Anio Novus, the aqueduct bringing water from the greatest distance to ancient Rome. Travertine accumulations, deposited from water on floor and walls, were used to reconstruct the flow rate and associated spatial and temporal variations. Hydraulic quantities (e.g., flow depth and velocity) markedly varied over the course of the aqueduct, implying that constraints such as topography and construction techniques were combined with hydraulic considerations to determine the aqueduct layout. Design practices differed along the aqueduct and channel size design was not based exclusively on anticipated carrying capacity, tending towards larger‐than‐necessary design based on experience.     

On the Origin of the Green Colour of Archaeological Bone Artefacts of the Gallo‐Roman Period

Recent findings in the city of Reims have lead to the discovery of manufactured bone objects coloured in green throughout their entire volume. In order to discover the intentional nature of the colouration and to propose a colouration mechanism, modern ox bones have been coloured in the laboratory. Bones with a hue similar to that of the archaeological artefacts have been obtained by boiling in an acidic brine in a copper vessel. A combination of infrared spectroscopy, X‐ray diffraction and transmission electron microscope observations did not reveal the speciation of copper, but allowed us to validate the colouration process and to discuss the intentional origin of the colouration.     

Exploring Roman Ritual Behaviours Through Plant Remains from Pannonia Inferior

The recovery of new plant remains from eastern Croatia are discussed here in order to determine their ritual significance and how this evidence may fit into chronological and regional observations on ritual plant offerings in the Roman world. Samples collected from inhumations, cremations and an altar dedicated to Silvanus Domesticus, dating from the 2nd to 4th centuries AD, are presented and show that a range of more ‘common’ plant remains, such as cereals and pulses, were an important part of ritual life. These results are also compared to the growing archaeobotanical data collected from shrine and cremation burials across Europe. Although the archaeobotanical data from the Croatian sites are limited, the increasing evidence of ritual plant use allows observations regarding the wider context of Roman social and religious change.     

Stable isotopic evidence for diet in a Roman and Late Roman population from Leptiminus,Tunisia

This study investigates the diet of the Roman and Late Roman population of Leptiminus on the Mediterranean coast of Tunisia. Stable carbon and nitrogen isotope analysis of human bone collagen and carbonate samples obtained from individuals buried in four cemeteries at Leptiminus was conducted in order to reconstruct the diet of the population, investigate the relative importance of marine vs. terrestrial resources, explore sex-, age-, and status-based variations in diet, examine temporal changes in the types of foods consumed, and compare the diet at Leptiminus with that of other Roman populations. The results of this study indicate that the residents of Leptiminus consumed a diet that was heavily reliant on terrestrial plant resources with the addition of a significant amount of marine resources. There were no significant sex differences in isotope values. In contrast, distinct dietary differences were seen between the adults and children. Nitrogen isotope values suggest that weaning began before the age of two and was completed by about 3 years of age, a finding consistent with previous isotopic studies of Roman samples. A temporal shift in diet is suggested by the nitrogen isotope values measured in samples from the most recent cemetery. A comparison of the data from Leptiminus with that derived from other Roman sites indicates that regional variability in diet existed within the Empire.     

A Preliminary Study of the Aqueduct of Reccopolis

Reccopolis was a new urban foundation of the late sixth century AD, built by King Liuvigild during the period of the Visigothic state formation. The city was equipped, alongside other facilities, with an aqueduct built ex novo in the Roman technique. This has only recently been studied. The construction of a new city and a new aqueduct indicates a great economic effort by the Visigothic ruler: the event was in itself also a grand act of propaganda in addition to its obvious functional purpose. The aqueduct is itself unmatched in public constructions of this period.     

Local mining or lead importation in the Roman province of Africa Proconsularis? Lead isotope analysis of curse tablets from Roman Carthage,Tunisia

This study attempts to determine if there was Roman lead mining in Africa Proconsularis, approximately the area of modern day Tunisia, using lead isotope analysis. Another important aspect of the study is the innovative use of electron microprobe analysis (EMPA) as a screening tool to greatly reduce the number of expensive lead isotope analyses needed for the study. The EMPA X-ray mapping for arsenic, antimony, copper, and silver narrowed the sample of curse tablets to those most likely produced from Tunisian ores; these tablets were then tested using thermal ionization mass spectrometry (TIMS) analysis. A total of 96 Roman lead curse tablets from Carthage, Tunisia were screened with EMPA and twenty selected for TIMS to determine the ore sources of the lead used to manufacture the tablets. Comparing the lead isotope ratios of twelve of the sixteen tablets most likely to be made of Tunisian lead to samples of Tunisian ores suggests that the Romans were mining lead in Africa Proconsularis and were not relying solely on imports.     

Analyses of colourless Roman glass from Binchester,County Durham

Forty samples of Roman colourless glass tableware from Binchester, dating from the 1st to mid-3rd centuries AD, were analysed using ICP spectrometry and parallels were sought with similar studies of Roman glass from Colchester and Lincoln [C. Mortimer, M.J. Baxter, Analysis of Samples of Colourless Roman Vessel Glass from Lincoln, Ancient Monuments Laboratory Report 44/1996, 1996; H.E.M. Cool, J. Price, Roman vessel glass from excavations in Colchester, 1971–1985, Colchester Archaeological Report 8, Colchester Archaeological Trust Ltd. and English Heritage, Colchester, 1995; M.P. Heyworth, M.J. Baxter, H. Cool, Compositional Analysis of Roman Glass from Colchester Essex, Ancient Monuments Laboratory Report 53/1990, 1990]. Some samples from the Binchester, Colchester and Lincoln (BCL) groups were re-analysed using energy dispersive spectrometry (SEM–EDS) and the results were used to compensate for the differences in reproducibility between the ICP data sets, so that these could be directly compared. The majority of the glass from all three sites was similar but some distinct compositional characteristics were identified that were specific to certain types of ware. There were differences in the concentration of lead in the samples, which appear to be to some extent chronological. The compositional data for the glass from Binchester, Colchester and Lincoln were also compared to literature data for various types of natron glass produced in the 1st millennium AD.     

A study of the Roman iron bars of Saintes-Maries-de-la-Mer (Bouches-du-Rhône,France). A proposal for a comprehensive metallographic approach

The aim of this paper is to contribute to the understanding of the organisation of the manufacture and circulation of iron bars and the possible bar standardisation of a given set of artefacts in order to throw more light on commercial patterns during Antiquity. A set of 48 iron based metal bars originating from the Roman shipwrecks at Les Saintes-Maries-de-la-Mer (France) has been studied using comprehensive metallographic observations, ranging from macroscopic to microscopic scales and slag inclusion (SI) analyses. A comparison of the results allows one to distinguish different metal qualities (inclusions, pores, welding, carbon content) that may be linked to morphological types, which shows the possible standardisation of this set of artefacts. Moreover, SI analyses allow distinguishing various origins for the Primary Pieces of Metal, thereby throwing light on a specific organisation of the iron bar production line during the late Roman period.     

Roman marble from Lusitania: petrographic and geochemical characterisation

This paper reports the results of an archaeometric study of the marble from the Estremoz Anticline, Portugal. Thirty-four samples from eleven different locations were analysed petrographically. In addition, ten samples were selected for trace element and strontium isotopic analysis. The sampling was aimed at obtaining material from known ancient quarries and at establishing the overall petrographic and geochemical variation of the marble from the Estremoz Anticline. The main type of marble in Estremoz is a white(-veined), calcitic marble with an average maximum grain size between 0.81 and 3.50 mm. ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr values of marble leachates range from 0.70850 to 0.70891 and are similar to the results for other Palaeozoic marbles of the Iberian Peninsula.     

PALAEOCLIMATIC IDENTIFICATION BASED ON AN ISOTOPE STUDY OF TRAVERTINE FROM THE COPPER AGE SITE AT LOS MILLARES,SOUTH-EASTERN SPAIN*

Remains of an aqueduct from the Copper Age settlement of Los Millares have been studied. The isotope results (—7‰ < δ¹⁸O — 5.3‰) show that the aqueduct was used to transport fresh water at room temperature. The results are inconsistent with the aqueduct being used for hot water transport or as a container for water exposed to evaporation processes. Both isotopic and mineralogical results were useful in identifying the origin and use of building materials and also in determining climatic conditions during the time of the settlement occupation.     

Glass from the Archaeological Museum of Adria (North-East Italy): new insights into Early Roman production technologies

In the present study, the first archaeometric data on an ample selection of intentionally coloured (or decoloured) Early Roman glass (1st–2nd centuries AD) from the Archaeological Museum of Adria (Rovigo, Italy) are reported. The analysed samples are 61 in total, both transparent and opaque, and were characterised from the textural (SEM-EDS), mineralogical (XRPD) and chemical (XRF, EPMA, LA-ICP-MS) points of view. This combined approach allowed us to identify the raw materials and production technologies employed in the manufacture of glassware. Results for the transparent samples show that they are all silica-soda-lime glasses. Most of them, independently of colour, have compositions close to those of typical Roman glass, produced with natron as flux. No relationships were identified among chemical compositions, types or production techniques, but a dependence on bulk composition was identified for some particular colours, revealing the careful and intentional selection of raw materials. This is the case of Sb-colourless glass, produced with sand of high purity, a group of intensely coloured objects, mainly emerald green and black, produced with soda ash as flux, and some blue examples produced with various sources of sand or soda ash as flux. Two main types of opacifiers were identified for the opaque samples: calcium antimonate for white, mauve and blue glasses, and lead antimonate for the yellow ones; in one case, a yellow lead-tin antimonate was also identified. As regards the opaque glasses, most of the samples opacified with calcium antimonate are silica-soda-lime in composition, similar to the typical Roman glass. Instead, samples opacified with lead and/or lead-tin antimonates are lead glasses, suggesting different production technologies.     

Soil geochemistry and detection of early Roman precious metal and copper alloy working at the Roman town of Calleva Atrebatum (Silchester,Hampshire, UK)

A geochemical soil survey was carried out over 500 m² of a first and second century AD house complex in insula IX of the Roman town of Calleva Atrebatum (Silchester, Hampshire, UK) where there was little prima facie evidence for non-ferrous metalworking. Preliminary analyses were made by XRF of lead, zinc and copper. These were followed by analysis for Au, Ag and Sn by ICP-MS of the samples with the highest concentrations of Pb, Zn and Cu. Certain of the Pb, Zn and Cu concentrations suggest the working of copper alloy including brass, and could be associated with archaeological evidence of hearths and burnt areas of second century AD date. Other samples have concentrations of the above metals and of gold and silver which do not appear to be associated with any physical remains of hearths and burnt areas. These concentrations date to the mid-first century AD.     

Identification of Pigments in Hellenistic and Roman Funeral Figurines

Microsamples removed from funeral figurines, which were found in two Hellenistic (third to second centuries bc ) and two Roman (first to second centuries ac ) tombs in the centre of Thessaloniki, Greece, are investigated following a multi‐analytical approach. Polarized light microscopy (PLM), X‐ray fluorescence (XRF) spectroscopy, micro‐Raman spectroscopy and high‐performance liquid chromatography coupled with a diode array detector (HPLC–DAD) are employed to identify both inorganic and organic pigments. PLM is useful to reveal the combinations of the colourants, which are identified as follows. Red ochre, cinnabar, yellow ochre, Egyptian blue, carbon black, calcite, dolomite and quartz are identified using XRF and Raman spectroscopy. HPLC–DAD is used to identify the organic colourants, which are rarely detected in painted objects of the Hellenistic and Roman period. In particular, cochineal and madder are found in six samples extracted from Hellenistic figurines. This is the first study describing the unequivocal identification of cochineal in Hellenistic objects. Furthermore, madder is identified in one sample dated to the Roman period. Madder lakes detected in the samples contain high amounts of purpurin; alizarin is either not detected or detected in trace amounts.     

Dimensional variations of Roman masonry subjected to wetting-drying cycles

Abstract

Many Roman monuments made of opus caementicium are subjected to wetting and drying phenomena caused by water or/and humidity from the ground. The action of water impregnation on the hypothetical dimensional changes in this Roman concrete has not been considered in the literature and no experimental data are available.

The purpose of this work was the evaluation of the effect of wetting and drying cycles in a number of cores taken from an ancient Roman monument (Domus Tiberiana in the Palatine, Rome). The concrete samples were made of a pozzolanic mortar with large pieces of tuff, marble and bricks.

In spite of some differences in their composition, the behaviour of the cores was similar and, generally, quite constant during the experimental cycles. On the average, the length variation was about 3–4%,or 3–4mm for each metre and, when related to high structural walls and monuments, the possible dimensional changes were quite impressive.     

Conversion Narratives and the Roman Inquisition in Malta, 1650–1700

This article analyses the conversion narratives which Christian renegades to Islam narrated to the inquisitor on their arrival in Malta in the second half of the seventeenth century. A few of them really believed in their new faith and were declared formal heretics, but the great majority had either been brought up as Muslims since a tender age or else were only suspected of believing that one can save oneself as a Muslim. The inquisitors were very indulgent with them and believed them when they said that they preserved the Christian religion in their hearts and were Muslims only on the outside.     

Organic Geochemical Evidence for Pine Tar Production in Middle Eastern Sweden During the Roman Iron Age

Several funnel-shaped features of unknown function were discovered at excavations related to a new stretch of the highway E4 in middle Sweden during 2002–2003. These features could be sub classed into two categories: large funnel-shaped pits dated to 600–1100 AD (Vendel period – Viking Age) and small funnel-shaped pits dated to 240–540 AD (late Roman Iron Age – Migration period) respectively. Soil samples were analysed for diterpenoids derived from abietic acid (mainly retene, abietic acid, dehydroabietic acid and methyl dehydroabietate) by Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS) in order to test the hypothesis that the features might be connected to pine tar manufacture. For comparison, samples from historically known pine tar and charcoal production features were analysed. The resinous fraction in the larger funnel-shaped features were very similar to those of the historical pine tar and charcoal production features, while the composition in the small funnel-shaped pits was dominated by retene and methyl dehydroabietate. The biomarker, methyl dehydroabietate, could be identified in several of the soil samples from the funnel-shaped pits. We suggest that both of these features have been used for pine tar production, which makes the smaller funnel-shaped features the oldest known tar production features in Europe.     

Analytical study of Roman and Arabic wall paintings in the Patio De Banderas of Reales Alcazares’ Palace using non-destructive XRD/XRF and complementary techniques

A portable XRD/XRF system and complementary laboratory techniques were employed to improve the knowledge of the procedures used to create Roman and Arabic wall paintings. Integrated physico-chemical investigations were conducted on fragments of artworks collected from the archaeological excavation of the Patio de Banderas in the Reales Alcazares’ Palace of Seville (Spain), and a comparative study on the pigments from both historical periods was performed. As a result, pigments such as vermilion, red ochre, yellow ochre, green earth, Egyptian blue, carbon and phosphor-based black pigments were detected in Roman samples; however, in the Arabic fragments, only haematite was observed. In addition, the size and shape of the particles of the wall paintings were studied with an XRD 2-dimensional detector and SEM-EDX.     

HIGH‐RESOLUTION (PIXE) ANALYSES OF CARBONATE DEPOSITS IN A ROMAN AQUEDUCT (FRÉJUS,SE FRANCE): IMPLICATIONS FOR THE STUDY OF PALAEOHYDROLOGICAL VARIABILITY AND WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT IN SOUTHERN GAUL DURING THE ROMAN PERIOD*

Urban water was supplied to the Roman city of Forum Julii (Fréjus, southeastern France) for at least 200 years by a 39.4 km long aqueduct, operating in ad 50. Two perennial springs were successively collected, the Foux and the Siagnole, located at the outlet of Triassic and Jurassic karstic reservoirs, respectively. In this study, we performed high‐resolution PIXE (Particle‐Induced X‐ray Emission) measurements of Ca, Si, Fe and Sr concentrations on selected cross‐sections of laminated carbonate sampled along the sidewalls, before and after the connection of the two collection channels. Seasonal variations of water composition, suspended sediment load and discharge are recorded by alternating clear and dark layers, and can be traced by their Sr and Fe contents. On the basis of an annual bimodal high‐discharge regime for the two karstic reservoirs, the concentration measurements allow the derivation of a chronological record (117.5 years) of water supply and maintenance activities for a part of the operational period of the aqueduct. The water level in the channel was mainly controlled by the extent of carbonate deposition and by dredging, repair and maintenance operations rather than by the past hydrological regime of the two springs.     

X‐ray Diffraction and SEM Investigation of Wall Paintings Found in the Roman Temple Complex at Horvat Omrit,Israel

In the present study, the fragments of wall painting found in the Roman Temple Complex at Horvat Omrit were analysed for the first time using the non‐destructive techniques of X‐ray diffraction (XRD) and scanning electron microscopy (ESEM) equipped with energy‐dispersive X‐ray spectroscopy (EDS). The application of these methods enabled unambiguous identifications of the pigments and plaster components of the samples. Quantitative information on mineral composition, crystallite size and elemental composition of each studied paint layer and plaster was collected. Based on the results of the XRD and EDS analyses, the green pigment was identified as celadonite. It was revealed that the Egyptian blue pigment does not contain impurities of tin and lead, and this excludes the use of bronze scrap in its synthesis. Comparison of the mineral composition of the paint layers indicates that a wider palette of colours was obtained by mixing the available mineral pigments. The study of cross‐sections of painted specimens revealed the usage of slaked lime for plastering. The obtained results give a new insight into the wall painting technique employed by ancient artists at Horvat Omrit, in northern Israel.