THE SPATIOTEMPORAL EVOLUTION OF U.S. CARBON DIOXIDE EMISSIONS: STYLIZED FACTS AND IMPLICATIONS FOR CLIMATE POLICY

We characterize the evolution of U.S. carbon dioxide (CO₂) emissions using an index number decomposition technique which partitions the 1963–2008 growth of states’ energy‐related CO₂ into changes in five driving factors: the emission intensity of energy use, the energy intensity of economic activity, the composition of states’ output, per capita income and population. Compositional change and declining energy intensity attenuate emissions growth, but their impacts are offset by increasing population and income. Despite absolute interstate divergence in both emissions and their precursors, states’ emission‐ and energy intensities—and ultimately, CO₂—appear to be stochastically converging. We assess the implications of these trends using a novel vector autoregression (VAR) emission forecasting technique based on our index numbers. The resulting emission projections are comparable to, but generally exceed, those forecast by the 2010 EIA Annual Energy Outlook.     

京津冀地区旅游业的碳排放测算与比较研究

本文借鉴"旅游消费剥离系数"概念构建了京津冀地区旅游业碳排放量的计算方法,并对京津冀三省份的旅游碳排放指标进行了比较分析。研究表明:2010-2012年京津冀地区的旅游碳排放总量持续攀升,从591.018万吨增加到696.3万吨,而旅游者的人均碳排放总量持续递减;2010-2012年北京市旅游业碳排放总量均排名首位,河北省始终最低,但是增长势头迅猛;从人均总量对比情况看,2010-2012年河北旅游业碳排放人均总量在京津冀中最低,同时,北京人均总量却是最高的,2010-2012年京津冀地区中只有北京的人均总量逐年下降,天津旅游业碳排放量人均总量呈现倒U型变化特征,而河北呈现持续上升特征。未来京津冀地区需要从节能减排行动纲要制定、企业节能技术创新等方面推进旅游节能减排工作。     

旅游业碳排放强度分布及其驱动因子的时空异质研究——基于30个省(市、区)2005-2014年的面板数据分析

本文利用交通运输业、邮电业、商业、餐饮业、住宿业以及社会服务业这6个行业面板数据,在揭示2005年至2014年30个省(市、区)旅游业碳排放总量与强度的时空动态变化关系时,借助LMDI法分解出影响我国旅游业碳排放增加量的关键因素。研究结果表明:①旅游业碳排放总量在时间上呈逐年上升趋势,且中、西部地区增长速度要显著高于东部地区;②旅游业碳排放强度在时间上呈逐年递减趋势,且中、西部地区下降速度要显著低于东部地区;③影响我国旅游业碳排放增加量的关键因素取决于经济产出因子(TEO)、接待人次因子(TP)、行业结构因子(TIS)、能源效率因子(TEE)、能源结构因子(TES)5个方面,前两者为增量因子,后三者为减量因子。     

The Effect of NAFTA on Energy and Environmental Efficiency in Mexico

Prior to Mexico's entry to the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), predictions of the consequent impact on the environment in that country ranged from the dire to very optimistic. This article investigates NAFTA's outcomes in terms of energy use and the emission of atmospheric pollutants. Specifically, has entry into NAFTA led to a convergence or divergence in indicators of emissions, environmental efficiency, and emissions‐specific technology in Mexico, the United States, and Canada? A battery of tests is applied to these indicators for energy use and carbon, sulfur, and NOx emissions in the three countries. The results show that the extreme predictions of the outcomes of NAFTA have not materialized. Rather, trends that were already present before the introduction of NAFTA continue and, in some cases, improve post‐NAFTA, but not yet in a dramatic way. There is strong evidence of convergence across the three countries toward a lower intensity of energy use and emissions per unit of GDP. Although intensity is rising initially for some variables in Mexico, it eventually begins to fall post‐NAFTA. Per capita emissions of sulfur and NOx also show convergence, but this is not the case for energy and carbon, and the latter variables also drift moderately upwards. The state of technology in energy efficiency and sulfur abatement is improving in all countries, although there is little, if any, sign of convergence and NAFTA has no effect on the rate of technology diffusion. However, total energy use and carbon emissions increase both pre‐ and post‐NAFTA and total NOx emissions increase in Mexico. Only total sulfur emissions are stable and falling in all three NAFTA partners.     

基于低碳旅游的旅游业碳排放测度方法研讨

随着低碳理念的出现和发展,低碳旅游已经成为旅游业发展的共同方向。测算旅游业碳排放是低碳旅游发展的关键步骤,但国内关于旅游业碳排放测度的研究仍处于起步阶段。本文基于国内外相关文献研究,将目前国外旅游业碳排放测度研究分为旅游产业碳排放测度和旅游地碳排放测度两大类,并分别结合国外研究案例对这两大类碳排放测度方法进行总结和分析。最后分析了国际经验对我国旅游业碳排放测度的适用性,并针对我国旅游业碳排放研究现状进行了思考。     

Emissions Trading,New Enclosures and Eco‐Social Contestation

Abstract: The central operating strategy within the 1997 Kyoto Protocol and most of the advanced capitalist world's environmental policy is to address climate change through the market mechanism known as emissions trading. Based upon government issuance and private trading of emissions reductions credits and offsets, this approach quickly rose to $135 billion in annual trading. But in the wake of the collapse of climate negotiations in Copenhagen and a world financial crisis which undermined market faith in derivative investments, carbon trading has an uncertain future. Linkages between deep‐rooted financial market and emissions market problems are revealing in spatio‐temporal terms, especially in the context of a deeper overaccumulation crisis and investors’ desperate need for new speculative outlets. It is in the nexus of the spatial and temporal aspects of carbon financing amidst resistance to “new enclosures” by adversely affected peoples, that broader‐based lessons for global/local environmental politics and climate policy can be learned.     

城市居住区周边土地混合度对居民通勤交通碳排放的影响——以南京市江宁区典型居住区为例

建立低碳城市发展模式和都市空间结构是当前城市规划的重要实践内容之一。结合对南京市江宁区典型居住区的调研数据,文章初步分析了城市居住区周边土地混合度对通勤交通碳排放的影响。结果表明：①城市中心区土地混合度与通勤交通碳排放呈高度负相关;②在通勤交通碳排放中,私家车通勤碳排放占主导地位;③不同小区居民通勤交通碳排放呈现明显差别,城市中心区居民低碳排通勤交通方式特征显著,而城郊居民通勤方式呈现高碳排特征;④城市中心区土地混合度与低碳出行比例呈高度正相关。未来,应适当提高各城市功能区土地混合度,改善居民的通勤结构,进而减少通勤交通产生的碳排放,构建低碳城市。     

Why wealthy countries must not drop nuclear energy: coal power,climate change and the fate of the global poor

Current estimates indicate that several hundred thousand deaths per year can be attributed to climate change. Developed countries have reacted to this growing disaster by increasing the use of renewable energies, but what is to be done with the additional electricity thus generated? Should it be used for cutting back coal‐fired energy production or can it be used for substituting nuclear energy? Priority must be given to replacing coal power, since developed countries have a strong duty to minimize the physical harm caused by their electricity generation. Dropping nuclear energy prior to coal power cannot be justified because the risks of nuclear energy pale in comparison to the suffering that emissions from coal‐fired plants inflict both on their host countries and on poorer countries in the global South that (a) do not benefit from this energy and (b) have far less capacity to cope with the effects of climate change or other environmental damages. This article argues that when faced with a choice between operating coal‐fired power plants or nuclear reactors, governments are obliged to opt for nuclear energy.     

Thermal effects on cathodoluminescence in forsterite

Cathodoluminescence (CL) spectral analysis has been conducted for luminescent forsterite (olivine) of terrestrial and meteoritic origins. Two emission bands at 3.15 and 2.99 eV in blue region can be assigned to structural defect centres and two emission bands at 1.91 and 1.74 eV in red region to impurity centres of Mn²⁺ and Cr³⁺, respectively. These emissions reduce their intensities at higher temperature, suggesting a temperature quenching phenomenon. The activation energy in the quenching process was estimated by a least-square fitting of the Arrhenius plots using integrated intensity of each component as follows; blue emissions at 3.15 eV: 0.08–0.10 eV and at 2.99 eV: 0.09–0.11 eV, red emissions at 1.91 eV: ～0.01 eV and at 1.74 eV: ～0.02 eV. The quenching process can be construed by the non-radiative transition by assuming the Mott-Seitz model. The values of activation energies for blue emissions caused by structural defects correspond to the vibration energy of Si-O stretching mode in the lattice, and the values for red emissions caused by Mn and Cr impurity centres to Mg-O vibration energy. It implies that the temperature quenching energy might be transferred as a phonon to the specific lattice vibration.     

The general equilibrium effects of high-occupancy vehicle lanes on congestion,sprawl, energy use,and carbon emissions

High-occupancy vehicle (HOV) lanes have been promoted to encourage carpools, reduce traffic congestion, and improve air quality. At the partial equilibrium level, commuting with three workers per automobile clearly reduces highway congestion, lowers carbon emissions, and saves energy compared with three single drivers. This paper develops a numerical urban simulation model to generate the general equilibrium effects of HOV lanes on urban spatial structure, energy use, and greenhouse gas emissions. The major findings are that while HOV lanes reduce traffic congestion and improve welfare, the fall in transportation cost leads to urban sprawl, which results in higher dwelling energy use and a larger carbon footprint. Overall, the HOV lane policy has little effect on total energy consumption and carbon emissions. This is another classic case of general equilibrium effects reversing the partial equilibrium effects of an urban policy. In contrast, a gasoline tax policy leads to less urban sprawl but is less effective at lowering energy consumption and carbon emissions. Imposing congestion tolls is a more effective tool at reducing traffic congestion, saving energy, and lowering carbon emissions.     

Response of cathodoluminescence of alkali feldspar to He+ ion implantation and electron irradiation

Cathodoluminescence (CL) of minerals such as quartz and zircon has been extensively studied to be used as an indicator for geodosimetry and geochronometry. There are, however, very few investigations on CL of other rock-forming minerals such as feldspars, regardless of their great scientific interest. This study has sought to clarify the effect of He+ ion implantation and electron irradiation on luminescent emissions by acquiring CL spectra from various types of feldspars including anorthoclase, amazonite and adularia. CL intensities of UV and blue emissions, assigned to Pb²⁺ and Ti⁴⁺ impurity centers respectively, decrease with an increase in radiation dose of He⁺ ion implantation and electron irradiation time. This may be due to decrease in the luminescence efficiencies by a change of the activation energy or a conversion of the emission center to a non-luminescent center due to an alteration of the energy state. Also, CL spectroscopy of the alkali feldspar revealed an in-crease in the blue and yellow emission intensity assigned to Al-O^?-Al/Ti defect and radiation-induced defect centers with the radiation dose and the electron irradiation time. Taken together these results indicate that CL signal should be used for estimation of the α and β radiation doses from natural radionuclides that alkali feldspars have experienced.     

The Matter of Carbon: Understanding the Materiality of tCO2e in Carbon Offsets

Abstract: This paper examines the socio‐natural relations inherent in the commodification of carbon reductions as they are generated in energy‐based carbon offset project activities, and abstracted to wider market systems. The ability to commodify carbon reductions takes place through a socionatural–technical complex that is defined by the material nature of technology's interaction with the atmosphere, local social processes and the evolving governing systems of carbon markets. Carbon is not unproblematically commodified: some projects and technologies allow a more cooperative commodification than others. The examples of a hydroelectricity plant and an improved cookstove project in Honduras are used as empirical case studies to illustrate the difficulties and opportunities associated with the relational aspects of carbon commodification. Drawing upon select literatures from post‐structural thought to complement the principal lens of a more structural, materiality of nature analysis, the paper also outlines the reasons why carbon offset reform is needed if offsets are to more progressively engage debates about climate mitigation and North–South development.     

Conventions of climate change: constructions of danger and the dispossession of the atmosphere

Climate change has emerged as one of the key issues of the early years of the twenty-first century, bringing together concerns about human relations to nature, the responsibility of rich nations to poorer, the links from local activities to global conditions, and the obligations of present to future generations. This paper focuses on three key ‘narratives’ that are enshrined in international climate policy – asserting that ‘dangerous climate change’ is to be avoided; that the responsibility for climate change is common but differentiated; and that the market (in the form of carbon trading) is the best way to reduce the danger. The goal of the paper is to analyse the origins of these narratives, the power relations they reflect and promote, and some of the concepts and images used to support them, including those of climate determinism, climate stabilisation, ‘burning embers’, ‘tipping points’, Global Warming Potentials, targets and timetables, and carbon credits. I argue that by choosing the market solution of trading carbon we have created a new and surreal commodity, unfairly allocated pollution rights to nation states based on 1990 emission levels, and established a new set north–south relations and carbon transactions in the name of sustainable development.     

Green Growth and the Balance-of-payments Constraint

The notion of green growth emphasizes environmental and climate policies that make economic activities more sustainable while contributing to higher growth. In developing countries, the ability of such policies to help solve the most pressing economic challenges is essential for green growth to be a viable concept. Notably, current account deficits, foreign exchange shortage and external debt accumulation are serious obstacles to economic development. The analysis in this article therefore approaches green growth from a new perspective. With a focus on energy, the article estimates the impact of the transition from fossil fuels to renewable energy on the balance-of-payments constrained growth of energy-importing developing and emerging economies. It assumes that their current economic structure otherwise remains the same. Since renewable energy production is more efficient than fossil fuel combustion and reduces import dependence, the energy transition increases the annual balance-of-payments constrained growth rate of the selected countries by up to 2.5 percentage points on average in a scenario from the present until 2050. This means that policies in favour of renewable energy allow those countries to grow faster without accumulating foreign debt or even triggering currency crises. Consequently, staying with the current fossil fuel-based energy system implies missing a significant potential for growth and development.     

Substitute or addition to hypermobile lifestyles? Second home mobility and Finnish CO2 emissions

Tourism produces an increasing share in global greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. These are mostly derived from transport emissions, and long-haul air travel in particular. Short-haul domestic tourism is believed by some to be a potential substitute for long-haul tourism. Using the example of Finland this paper examines the extent to which domestic second home tourism can substitute for other leisure trips and therefore contribute to reductions of travel-generated GHG emissions. Survey data are used to evaluate the CO₂ emissions caused by travel to domestic second homes, and to create statistical models that verify if the owners of domestic second homes travel to other leisure destinations less frequently than others, and if they cause less emissions by their leisure mobility than others with comparable economic and demographic background. We find that although the owners and users of domestic second homes travel for other leisure purposes less frequently than others, this does not mean their leisure mobility generates less emissions. Overall, owners of second homes produce significantly more CO₂ by their leisure mobility than non-owners. The use of second homes does not seem to be a substitute for high emission long-haul travels, but rather a part of an overall highly mobile leisure lifestyle. It is therefore necessary to better understand and influence the entire range of individual mobility behaviours in order to reduce travel-related GHG emissions.     

Renewable Energy Politics: Policy Typologies,Policy Tools,and State Deployment of Renewables

This paper investigates the competing forces driving the development of renewable energy in the American states. We formulate a framework of state renewable energy politics and develop a set of hypotheses regarding the role of politics, policies, and prices in renewable energy development. We test these hypotheses with a fixed effect vector decomposition model using a panel data set for the U.S. states from 1990 to 2008. The results indicate that renewable energy development is influenced by regulatory institutions, the party affiliations of the governor and legislators, and the professionalism of the legislature, accompanied by the effects of various policy instruments.     

The impact of precarious security conditions on renewable electrification: The case of the West Bank

Recent energy-related writing has highlighted the spatiality of renewable energy and its possible affinity to geopolitics. Yet, energy geography and geopolitics literature lack reference to security and how it may shape the energy landscape. This study unpacks the elusive concepts of security and territoriality and operationalizes them into measurable variables. Using statistical and qualitative methods, including an original dataset based on planning and building protocols, this study tests the interplay between security conditions and territoriality on renewable energy adoption. It examines the case study of the contested Area C territory in the West Bank, within the context of the Israeli-Palestinian conflict. The findings show that precarious security conditions discourage renewable energy diffusion, particularly when security is linked to territorial conflict. As land-intensive infrastructures, renewable energy systems challenge territorial claims. This study demonstrates how space acts as an intermediate variable connecting security concerns with the diffusion of renewable technology. Security interests use spatial planning as a key mechanism to negatively influence on renewable energy diffusion in contested territory, such as Area C, where power asymmetry heavily leans to the advantage of one party. These findings contradict the argument that renewable energy is a catalyst for peace building. They show how renewable energy projects create inequalities and are often held hostage by the territorial dispute between Israel and the Palestinians.     

Renewable energy expansion or the preservation of national energy sovereignty? Norwegian renewable energy policy meets resource nationalism

Proponents of renewable energy often argue that renewables bolster national energy sovereignty. Most of the scholarship however focuses on security of supply, imports and enhanced domestic production, not on exports. How does exporting renewable energy resources affect sovereignty? Here, we turn our attention to Norway, a country that is already self-sufficient in renewables, and where renewable energy expansion is primarily directed at exports. Drawing on resource nationalist scholarship we empirically scrutinize key Norwegian renewable energy debates and show how the Norwegian renewable energy debates do not include notions of renewables bolstering sovereignty. On the contrary, they vary between portraying the relationship between renewables and sovereignty as a non-relationship, where renewables are immaterial to sovereignty, or an adverse relationship, where renewable expansion is perceived to weaken, rather than strengthen, sovereignty. The fear of being locked into an asymmetric dependency relationship with an EU that gradually wrests away Norwegian sovereignty over natural resources triggers resource nationalist imaginaries and is a powerful brake on renewable energy expansion. Resource nationalism is also fueled by claims of green grabbing and attacks on local self-determination. Our findings signal that renewable expansion may trigger political and popular backlashes, and that resource nationalist claims about abstained sovereignty may constitute considerable obstacles to renewable energy transitions.     

The Implications of Policy Stability for Renewable Energy Innovation in the United States, 1974–2009

Government support and commitment are of particular importance for renewable energy technology innovation activities, which are highly contingent on policy and market uncertainty. The research focus of this article is to examine the relationship between policy stability in public resource allocation and policy outcomes in renewable energy technologies. With time‐series cross‐sectional analyses, we test effects of both the stability and magnitude of federal R&D expenditures on patent applications in five renewable energy sectors (i.e., solar, wind, hydropower, geothermal, and bioenergy) from 1974 to 2009. The findings show that technology innovation is affected by both the magnitude and stability of government financial commitment. Nevertheless, when industries perceive government support over longer time frames, the magnitude effect loses explanatory power to the stability effect. In addition to federal R&D expenditures, policies pertaining to technology commercialization and marketization are a critical determinant of innovation activities. This study demonstrates that incremental, predictable, and credible expenditures facilitate renewable energy technology development. Conversely, a boom‐bust cycle of resource support fails to translate policy goals into intended results.     

Australia's Indigenous Carbon Economy: A National Snapshot

Many Indigenous communities in Australia are well situated to provide greenhouse gas abatement and carbon sequestration benefits, but little is known about the factors affecting the capability of Australia's Indigenous organisations to participate in climate change mitigation strategies. This paper provides a ‘snapshot’ summary of certain aspects of Australia's Indigenous organisations' participation in carbon offset schemes. The snapshot provides insight into the degree to which Indigenous organisations are aware of carbon market opportunities in Australia, the level that these Indigenous organisations participate in or engage with carbon‐based economic enterprises, and the key pathways through which Indigenous carbon market opportunities are pursued. Analysis of data collected from a national survey conducted between 2011 and 2012 show that most obstacles to Indigenous participation in carbon offset schemes relate to land tenure arrangements; geographic and biophysical factors; low levels of requisite technical, human and financial resources; and appropriate recognition of Indigenous knowledge and cultural responsibilities. The snapshot also highlights the value of supporting regionally specific capacity‐building strategies to enable Indigenous people to participate in emerging carbon offset activities and the generation of associated ecosystem services. Cultural, socio‐economic or demographic factors that are also likely to influence the ability of many Indigenous communities to participate in carbon market opportunities are identified as important areas for further research.