我国人民代表大会制度的形成与发展

人民代表大会制度作为我国的根本政治制度,其萌芽、形成、发展,经历了一个较为复杂曲折的过程。人民代表大会制度的发展史可分为四个阶段,即人民代表大会制度正式确立和初步发展时期(1954-1957年)、人民代表大会制度曲折发展时期(1957-1966年)、人民代表大会制度遭受严重破坏时期(1966-1976年)、人民代表大会制度得到恢复和进一步完善时期(1976年至今)。人民代表大会制度是中国共产党人根据中国的实际情况创造性地运用马克思列宁主义关于国家学说的结果,是历史发展的必然结果,是人民的选择。同时,它又与我国民主法制建设密不可分。     

中国俄国史研究百年检视与思考

中俄交往始于蒙古西征和金帐汗国时代(1238-1480年),中国学人撰写俄国史自1878年刊印的鹭江奇迹人的《俄国志略》,到今天已经有整整140年的历史。中国的俄国史学科伴随民族命运、国家危机以及世界形势的变化而生,自诞生之日起即负有学人情怀、民族重任和学术职责三重使命。因此,俄国史学科在中国一直发挥着“知夷”和“盗火”的两大作用。中华人民共和国成立后,俄国史(包括苏联时期和俄罗斯联邦时期)研究获得了70年的巨大发展,主要成就有:1985年中国苏联东欧史研究会成立(1992年英文更名为中国俄罗斯东欧中亚史研究会),高等院校、社会科学院、党校、国家有关部委及党政机构纷纷设立俄国史或俄罗斯问题研究机构,建立了从历史学学士、俄国史硕士到俄国史博士的三级专业人才培养体系,俄国史和俄罗斯问题研究的专业期刊创立并连续出版,大量的俄国通史、中俄(中苏)关系史、专题著作、各类教科书、翻译著作(来自俄文、英法、法文、德文、波兰文等)出版,中国俄国史学者积极参与国际学术会议和国际合作研究,具有中国特色的中国“俄罗斯学”新学科正在建立过程中。     

Vladimir Mikhailovich Bekhterev

V.M. Bekhterev (1857-1927) was an outstanding Russian neurologist, psychiatrist, psychologist, morphologist, physiologist, and public figure, who authored over 1000 scientific publications and speeches. At the beginning of the twentieth century he created a new multidimensional multidisciplinary scientific branch - psychoneurology, which included the objective knowledge of the anatomy and physiology of the nervous system, psychology, psychiatry, neurology, philosophy, sociology, pedagogy, and other disciplines. Psychoneurology in V.M. Bekhterev's understanding has furthered the introduction into the idea of a "biosocial" essence of man of a third - psychological - component, thus having created a "biopsychosocial" model in the interpretation of human diseases.     

Pantheon of brains: the Moscow Brain Research Institute 1925-1936

The investigation of Lenin's brain by the German neurobiologist Oskar Vogt and his Russian collaborators in Moscow is one of the most exciting and simultaneously questionable chapters in the history of medicine. With the bizarre claim to be able to detect the material substrate of genius it provoked as much unrealistic expectations in the public as strong criticism by the scientific community of brain researchers. The following paper deals in a brief survey with the foundation and the early history of the Moscow Brain Research Institute (INSTITUT MOZGA) and its initial task - the collecting and mapping the brains of famous (Russian) persons in general and the investigation of Lenin's brain in particular.     

The Moscow Colloquium on Electroencephalography of Higher Nervous Activity and its impact on international brain research

Late 1950s was a period of recognition of Russian neurophysiology by international neuroscience community and vice versa. This process of "opening windows in both directions" might be illustrated by the story of The Moscow Colloquium on Electroencephalography of Higher Nervous Activity. The Colloquium took place on October 6-11, 1958 at the House of Scientists in Moscow. It was organized by the Academy of Sciences of the USSR under the initiative of the Institute for Higher Nervous Activity and focused on (a) EEG correlates of cortical excitation and inhibition; (b) electrophysiological study of different brain structures and their role in conditioned reflexes; and (c) EEG of higher nervous activity in humans. At the final session it was suggested to launch an International Year for the Study of the Brain and to ask UNESCO for international coordination of brain research. This resulted into the International Brain Research Organization (IBRO) founded in 1960. This article is based on unpublished records of international contacts of Soviet neurophysiologists and organization of the Moscow Colloquium from the Archive of Russian Academy of Science (ARAN), reports in Soviet periodicals, publications in obscure Festschriften, etc.     

Inclusiveness and Coherency in the History of the Neurosciences

The International Society for the History of the Neurosciences (ISHN) defines “neurosciences” broadly, and we want to encourage the widest possible range of scholarly approaches to our subject. However, this deliberate inclusiveness could potentially cause problems with internal coherency in our organization and in the scholarship that we are trying to create. In other words, we need to avoid the pitfalls of the internalistexternalist tension without losing the benefits of both perspectives. In fact, I think that there is a large and interesting “gray zone,” where the boundary between these supposedly separate approaches is both artificial and porous. This should be one of the most rewarding intellectual domains for the study of neuroscience history, because our subject is always culturally loaded by the mind/body problem and by the assumptions that it entails. Of course, neuroscience history is also influenced by all of the other cultural and scientific aspects of the milieus in which it is conducted. Understanding neuroscience history in all of its multiple historical contexts will require the participation of a wide range of scholarly viewpoints. To keep ourselves coherent in the process, we will have to educate each other.     

Inclusiveness and coherency in the history of the neurosciences

The International Society for the History of the Neurosciences (ISHN) defines "neurosciences" broadly, and we want to encourage the widest possible range of scholarly approaches to our subject. However, this deliberate inclusiveness could potentially cause problems with internal coherency in our organization and in the scholarship that we are trying to create. In other words, we need to avoid the pitfalls of the internalist-externalist tension without losing the benefits of both perspectives. In fact, I think that there is a large and interesting "gray zone," where the boundary between these supposedly separate approaches is both artificial and porous. This should be one of the most rewarding intellectual domains for the study of neuroscience history, because our subject is always culturally loaded by the mind/body problem and by the assumptions that it entails. Of course, neuroscience history is also influenced by all of the other cultural and scientific aspects of the milieus in which it is conducted. Understanding neuroscience history in all of its multiple historical contexts will require the participation of a wide range of scholarly viewpoints. To keep ourselves coherent in the process, we will have to educate each other.     

Interdisciplinarity in the neurosciences

Abstract

The study of the human brain and of the biological nature of the mind and consciousness remains one of the greatest of all scientific challenges. Neuroscience can also lay claim to being one of the most interdisciplinary fields of scientific enquiry, and this has been true since well before the concept of interdisciplinarity was itself invented. Neuroscience draws on insights and developments in disciplines as diverse as molecular biology, electronics, biomedical engineering, statistics, psychology, biophysics, pharmacology, and linguistics. This paper examines the historical, transdisciplinary roots of modern neuroscience and reviews its contemporary interdisciplinary character, before examining two 'case studies', the emergence of functional neuroimaging as a powerful new neuroscientific tool and the ongoing dialogue between computer science and the neurosciences.     

Neurognostics Answer

Although many individuals contributed to the development of the science of cerebral localization, its conceptual framework is the work of a single man—John Hughlings Jackson (1835–1911), a Victorian physician practicing in London. Hughlings Jackson's formulation of a neurological science consisted of an axiomatic basis, an experimental methodology, and a clinical neurophysiology. His axiom—that the brain is an exclusively sensorimotor machine—separated neurology from psychiatry and established a rigorous and sophisticated structure for the brain and mind. Hughlings Jackson's experimental method utilized the focal lesion as a probe of brain function and created an evolutionary structure of somatotopic representation to explain clinical neurophysiology. His scientific theory of cerebral localization can be described as a weighted ordinal representation. Hughlings Jackson's theory of weighted ordinal representation forms the scientific basis for modern neurology. Though this science is utilized daily by every neurologist and forms the basis of neuroscience, the consequences of Hughlings Jackson's ideas are still not generally appreciated. For example, they imply the intrinsic inconsistency of some modern fields of neuroscience and neurology. Thus, “cognitive imaging” and the “neurology of art”—two topics of modern interest—are fundamentally oxymoronic according to the science of cerebral localization. Neuroscientists, therefore, still have much to learn from John Hughlings Jackson.     

东北新石器文化格局及其与周边文化的关系

本文依据典型遗址层位关系、器物形态比较、碳14测定数据等材料,将东北11个文化区的新石器时代文化自早至晚区分为三个阶段七个时期,确定了各种文化所处的时空位置。分别从遗址分布、房址、墓葬、生产工具、生活用具、原始艺术品、经济类型等7个方面,概括了东北地区新石器时代考古学文化的基本特征。通过文化比较,讨论了东北文化区与中原地区、山东半岛地区、俄罗斯贝加尔湖地区、俄罗斯远东南部地区、朝鲜半岛地区史前文化的交流与影响。     

The Development of Motor Roads in the USSR

Surfaced roads, including gravel roads, total 510,000 km, or 37.5 percent of the Soviet Union's motor-road net of 1.4 million kilometers, the rest consisting of dirt roads. Only about 260,000 km, or less than one-fifth, consists of blacktop or cement or asphalt concrete highways. The lack of roads tends to cause considerable losses to the Soviet economy, particularly in agriculture. An accelerated road-building program is therefore under way, with the current five-year plan (1971–75) calling for the construction or reconstruction of 110,000 km of improved surfaced roads (blacktop and cement or asphalt-concrete) compared with 75,000 km added in the preceding five-year period (1966–70). The densest road nets in the USSR are found in the Baltic republics, in Transcaucasia, Moldavia, the Ukraine and Belorussia. The lowest road-density indices apply to the Russian republic and to Kazakhstan.     

Neuronomy,education, and outreach in neuroscience: A historical case study of Burt Green Wilder

Burt Green Wilder (1841–1925) was a pioneering naturalist and anatomist who is historically known for his brain collection and for his contributions to neuroanatomical nomenclature. During his 42-year career, Wilder also used brain measurements for education and outreach, especially in regard to issues of race and gender. Additionally, Wilder influenced neuroscience education and acted as a scientific liaison to the public. For example, he designed early implementations of the sheep brain dissections that are still being conducted today, as well as likely conducted the first “Brain Day.” This article reviews each of these topics, as well as others, with the aim of accurately placing Wilder in the history of neuroscience as a naturalist and anatomist who, among other achievements, pioneered the use of brain measurements for education and outreach.     

Serendipity and the Cerebral Localization of Pleasure

Most accounts of the discovery of “pleasure” circuits in the brain begin with the observation by James Olds and Peter Milner in 1953 that electrical brain stimulation can condition operant responses in rats. Less well-known, pleasurable brain stimulation was previously observed in schizophrenic patients by Robert Heath. However, Heath failed to recognize the significance of this observation, at least in part, because of preconceived notions he held about the etiology of schizophrenia. This episode in the history of neuroscience illustrates the importance of sagacity in serendipitous scientific discoveries. It also shows that “mental preparedness” can be an obstacle to progress.     

Serendipity and the cerebral localization of pleasure

Most accounts of the discovery of "pleasure" circuits in the brain begin with the observation by James Olds and Peter Milner in 1953 that electrical brain stimulation can condition operant responses in rats. Less well-known, pleasurable brain stimulation was previously observed in schizophrenic patients by Robert Heath. However, Heath failed to recognize the significance of this observation, at least in part, because of preconceived notions he held about the etiology of schizophrenia. This episode in the history of neuroscience illustrates the importance of sagacity in serendipitous scientific discoveries. It also shows that "mental preparedness" can be an obstacle to progress.     

Russian Fiscal Federalism under Stress: Federal Support of Regions during the Global Financial Crisis

A former high-ranking Russian Ministry of Finance official examines the consequences of financial support extended to regions by the Russian Federation government during the global financial crisis in 2008-2010, for the purpose of exploring its potential impact on the regions' financial health in 2011-2012. The paper is structured around an analysis of the three major dimensions of that support: (1) legal and administrative actions undertaken at the federal level to reduce financial pressure on the regions; (2) increased issuance of intergovernmental fiscal grants in 2009; and (3) loans granted to the regions from the federal budget. The author argues that the financial crisis has provided a "stress test" that is useful in assessing the efficiency and flexibility of the Russian system of fiscal federalism.     

The 'greening' of global project financing: the case of the Sakhalin-II offshore oil and gas project

This article responds to a plea for economic geographers to play greater attention to the world's resource peripheries. The article presents a detailed case study of oil and gas development offshore of Sakhalin in the Russian Far East. The study serves to illustrate the complexity of resource peripheries and to demonstrate how a critical approach to resource geographies aids economic geographic theorization of globalization. The case study focuses on how the 'greening' of global project financing has created a means by which environmental non-governmental organizations hold the international oil companies to account. The article describes the transnational advocacy network that has developed to protest against the Sakhalin-II project. The key issues are identified and the response of the operator, Sakhalin Energy, is considered. Finally, the recent actions of the Russian Government in relation to the environmental impacts of the Sakhalin-II project are examined. The article concludes by assessing the ways in which the Sakhalin case demonstrates the complex processes that construct resource peripheries and how such analyses contribute to the development of a truly global economic geography. Le 'verdissement' du financement de projets à     

The Central Institute for Brain Research in Amsterdam and its Directors

The Central Institute for Brain Research was founded in Amsterdam in 1908 as part of an international effort to study the nervous system with multiple institutions and various disciplines. The development of research in the past hundred years at the Brain Institute has hardly been documented. We analyze the history of this institute by means of brief portraits of its directors and their main research topics. It appears that each director introduced his own branch of neuroscience into the institute. Initially, mainly comparative neuroanatomical data were collected. Following the Second World War, the multidisciplinary approach slowly developed with research programs on systems neuroscience, neuroendocrinology, and brain disorders. Every new director introduced new approaches to the study of the brain and thus played an important role in keeping brain research in the Netherlands at the international forefront where it has been ever since its foundation in 1908.     

A.R. Luria and the history of Russian neuropsychology

This paper analyzes Russian contributions to neuropsychology from the eighteenth up to the twenty-first century. Various approaches to the problem of the organization and localization of mental functions in the Pre-Lurian and Luria's periods are discussed. Comparisons with European and North American contributions and with contributions from subsequent Russian literature (post-Lurian period) are presented to demonstrate their interconnections in shaping the course of Russian neuropsychology and the main tendencies in its development.     

Investigating consciousness in the sleep laboratory – an interdisciplinary perspective on lucid dreaming

ABSTRACT

During dreaming, we experience a wake-like hallucinatory reality, however with restricted reflective abilities: in the face of a bizarre dream environment, we do not realize that we are actually dreaming. In contrast, during the rare phenomenon of lucid dreaming, the dreamer gains insight into the current state of mind while staying asleep. This metacognitive insight often enables the dreamer to control own dream actions and the course of the dream narrative. Lucid dreaming allows for radically new methodological and theoretical approaches and has led to new insights in diverse scientific disciplines beyond classical sleep and dream research, including neuroscience, psychotherapy, philosophy, art, and sports sciences. Here, we review past research and the current knowledge on lucid dreaming. We present insights into the scientific work in a sleep laboratory and describe how lucid dreams can be induced through methodologies from diverse academic backgrounds including psychology, electrical engineering and pharmacology.     

苏联最初十年农村青年的东正教信仰

东正教传入俄罗斯后,深深地影响了俄罗斯人,特别是俄罗斯农民。苏联最初十年,在苏联政府的反宗教无神论宣传下,俄罗斯农民的东正教信仰发生了变化,表明苏联政府无神论宣传在当时取得了一定的成功,是值得肯定的,同时也说明了社会主义意识形态的先进性得到了青年农民的承认。研究这一问题对如何引导青年接受先进的宗教文化意识,根除他们思想中的封建迷信,具有很大的现实意义。