The decision to shelter archaeological sites Three case-studies from Sicily

Abstract

The decision to provide a protective shelter for exposed archaeological remains is illustrated by examining case studies of three sites in Sicily that were provided with protective measures in the 1950s. The three protective shelters were designed by the same architect, Franco Minissi, for the sites of Gela, the Villa Romana del Casale (Piazza Armerina) and Heraclea Minoa. His work on protective shelters is viewed in the broader context of the development at that time in Italy of Cesare Brandi's theory of restoration and of Minissi's own philosophy of 'musealizzazione' for the protection of historic sites and their integration into contemporary society.     

也谈秦俑二号坑出土的绿面俑

1999年,秦俑二号坑出土了一尊非常罕见的绿面俑,这尊陶俑的出土引起了学术界的极大争议。本文在考究其他学术观点的基础上,从秦兵马俑作为秦始皇陵的陪葬品这一性质来探讨绿面俑的含义。     

秦俑陶片的偏光显微分析研究

为了预防性保护和修复秦俑,必须掌握秦俑残片显微结构及其烧制环境、破损方式,从而为改善秦俑修复工艺、筛选修复材料提供基础,运用偏光显微镜对秦兵马俑残片中的一些矿物质(石英、长石、云母等)颗粒的分布形态和含量来分析陶土的成分结构、制作工艺、烧成气氛及原料来源等信息。结果表明,秦俑陶片主要成分为少量砂屑及大量粘土,而粘土为岩土矿风化的产物,秦俑残片裂痕较多的部位风化、酥粉痕迹明显。秦俑制作工艺以模为主,模、塑结合,并在粘土中添加了细砂,多于还原气氛中烧制而成。     

从秦俑坑出土箭镞看镞的发展演变

1974年秦兵马俑坑发现之后,俑坑中出土约40000支箭镞,除了4件铁铤铜镞、2件铁镞之外,其余均为铜铤铜镞。本文拟通过对目前秦兵马俑坑中出土的大型铜镞和小型铜镞的型制与青铜配比的分析,来研究秦代箭镞的特点,并以此探讨镞的发展演变。     

X-ray and spectrographic analyses of terracotta figurines from myrina: an attempt to characterize workshops

Physico-chemical techniques of analysis have been applied to a series of Hellenistic terracotta figurines found at Myrina on the coast of Asia Minor to explore the feasibility of using chemical and mineralogical composition as parameters in the identification of figurine workshops. The results suggest that there is a tentative basis for the correlation between composition and stylistic criteria among the figurines. The difficulties associated with this approach are discussed, and account is taken of an earlier enquiry that was carried out on similar lines.     

秦俑彩绘相关问题研究

在出土的彩绘秦俑上,发现表面装饰颜色中带有一些土黄或土红色区域,为了弄清它们是人为绘作的还是由于其它原因形成的,我们对其进行了分析研究。经过大量分析检测和显微镜观察,并结合发掘现场调查和中国传统文化观念分析,我们认为它们是陶俑在地下长期埋藏过程中,受到地下物质玷污或替代形成的。     

Multimethod characterization of terracotta figurines and lime mortar from the elite burials Shoroon Bumbagar I and II,Mongolia

The multi-analytical approach, including X-ray fluorescence (XRF), X-ray diffraction (XRD), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), and scanning electron microscopy with X-ray (SEM-EDX), was applied to terracotta figurines, mural plaster, and local clay sources coming from two elite burials in Mongolia—Shoroon Bumbagar I and Shoroon Bumbagar II—dated to the second half of the VII century AD. The aims of this study were: (1) by comparing the major composition of body samples with those of the ancient Tang sancai kilns to identify the origin of raw materials; and (2) to track changes in the manufacturing technology. Analysis of CaO, Fe₂O₃, TiO_2, and K₂O, which were crucial for distinguishing the provenance of red bodies, confirmed the local production of terracotta figurines. Furthermore, this study helped us attain a deeper understanding of the Tang sancai at both Shoroon Bumbagar sites, geographically located on both banks of the Tuul River yet separated in time by a few decades; it suggests the movement of two groups of artisans using different technologies to make Tang sancai locally by incorporating local tastes and traditions.     

The wood in the pits of terracotta figures and its architectural application

Ever since the pits of terracotta warriors and horses in China were discovered and opened to the public, a number of questions remained unsolved: what kinds of wood were selected for building the pits, how the wood was used in the pits' architecture and where was the giant volume of wood collected from? In this study, twenty pieces of charcoal specimens from Pit 1 and Pit 2 were examined with the Scanning Electron Microscope and identified as Abies, Tusga, Picea (all three genera in Pinaceae) and Phoebe (Lauraceae) woods. With the former works, it is concluded that the woods in the pits were mainly from the group of gymnosperms (95%) and few from that of angiosperms (5%). It is deduced that the wood in the pits was probably collected from the areas nearby.     

The terracotta figurines from ed-Dur (Umm al-Qaiwain, U.A.E.): the human representations

The present article proposes an examination of the human terracotta figurines found during the course of eight archaeological seasons carried out by a Belgian team at the coastal site of ed-Dur in the Emirate of Umm-al-Qaiwain. Since most fragments lack a secure archaeological context, the figurines will be studied mainly in comparison with similar data occurring at other contemporary sites throughout the Gulf and Mesopotamia. We shall see that the ed-Dur figurines appear mostly to be isolated cases coming from abroad instead of objects playing a prominent part in local religious or ritual beliefs.     

Unpublished terracotta figurines in the Museum of the Archaeology Department, Sana'a University, Yemen

Fifty unpublished handmade terracotta figurines have been collected by the Museum of the Department of Archaeology, Faculty of Arts, Sana'a University, Republic of Yemen. These figurines were obtained either as donations or through purchase, and most of them come from Al-Kherba Al-Bayda and Al-Kherba As-Sawda, and Bani Nuf in the Wadi Al-Jawf (northwest Yemen).     

山东临淄山王村俑坑出土陶质彩绘颜料初步分析

2008年5月山东临淄山王村俑坑出土了数量较多的彩绘陶质文物,为了了解彩绘颜料结构和成分,采用粉末偏光显微法、剖面观察结合拉曼光谱分析对彩绘文物表面颜料样品进行分析。结果表明,这批陶质文物表面彩绘是以白灰做地仗层,由碳酸钙、白土、铁黑（Fe₃O₄）、铁红（Fe₂O₃）、朱砂等颜料调和而成,且厚度不均。在个别样品中发现了少量的中国蓝颗粒(BaCuSi₄O₁₀),这是这次分析中较为重要的发现,此分析结果也可为考古研究提供科学信息。     

A terracotta phallus from Pisa Ship E: more evidence for the Priapus deity as protector of Greek and Roman navigators

Although the ithyphallic deity Priapus was most generally viewed by the Greeks and Romans as a garden fertility god, there is archaeological and textual evidence that those engaged in maritime activity, especially sea-borne trade, also conceived him as a protective deity. The recent discovery of a terracotta phallus in the remains of Pisa Ship E suggests that apotropaic Priapic icons were carried aboard ancient vessels. This finding, along with two related precedents, allows for a new interpretation with regard to the presence of phallic iconography in the assemblages of Greek and Roman wrecks.     

Influence of Taoism on the invention of the purple pigment used on the Qin terracotta warriors

Until the 19th century, most pigments were based on naturally occurring colored minerals and dyes, with three significant exceptions: Egyptian Blue, Chinese Blue/Purple and Maya Blue. The former two are alkaline-earth copper silicates, and because of this similarity it has been proposed that the Chinese pigments were derived from Egyptian Blue. Herein, we analyzed clumps of pigment from the Qin warriors and discovered that in spite of the structural similarity to Egyptian Blue, the micro-structural morphology of Chinese Purple is very different. Therefore, we believe that the synthesis technology for the Chinese pigments was a by-product of high-refractive index glasses (artificial jades) produced by Taoist monks. Further, the disappearance of these pigments from Chinese art and monuments concurrently with the decline of Taoism not only substantiates the link between the two, but also gives a striking example of how cultural changes in the society affected the scientific developments in ancient China.     

Ruling from afar: government and information management in late medieval Sicily

In 1412 Sicily lost its independence and became part of the Crown of Aragon. To rule the island, the new monarchs developed a system of long-distance government, through the action of local viceroys. But how did this system work in practice? This article engages with the lively historiographical debate about late medieval Sicily and more generally the Aragonese conglomerate by examining the series of libri quictacionum (‘books of quittances’) produced by the financial office, the Conservatoria regii patrimonii. It shows that the management of information – by means of a new genre of documents, an innovative record-keeping system and an apparatus of marginal annotations – became crucial in establishing effective government at a distance and in strengthening royal control over Sicilian institutions and officers. Moreover, these books and the documents they encompass highlight the social dynamics of the island and the emergence of an urban class: the Aragonese promoted the inclusion of the principal members of the latter into central government by granting them offices.     

The terracotta figurines from ed-Dur (Umm al-Qaiwain, U.A.E.): The animal representations

Ten fragments of animal figurines from ed-Dur, the largest site of the 1^st century A.D. in southeastern Arabia, are published and compared with material from other sites in the Near East. The figurines are discussed in light of broader issues relating to the representation of birds and animals in pre-Islamic Arabia.     

An exclusively hyena-collected bone assemblage in the Late Pleistocene of Sicily: taphonomy and stratigraphic context of the large mammal remains from San Teodoro Cave (North-Eastern Sicily,Italy)

A detailed taphonomic analysis of the large mammal assemblage from 1998 to 2006 excavations at San Teodoro Cave is presented, taking into account the stratigraphic context of the deposits. Three not strictly contemporary fossiliferous levels having different lithological features have been detected, here named B-I, B-II, and B-III. Fossil remains are prevalently accumulated in B-I and B-II. The three levels are characterized by evidence of Crocuta crocuta spelaea occupation, represented by their skeletal remains, coprolites, and distinctive damages on the bones, similar to fossil and modern spotted hyena dens from Europe and Africa. A differential distribution of coprolites and small digested bones, probably due to different humidity conditions, has been recognized in B-I and B-II, and can be related to different topographic locations within the cave or to different climate conditions during the sedimentation phases. The very low density of fossil remains in B-III, which is the oldest level, could indicate an area that was less inhabited by hyenas, probably due to geomorphological conditions. Taphonomic comparison of the three fossiliferous levels of the San Teodoro Cave deposits points to a long-term, perhaps cyclic, occupation of the cave by hyenas and confirms the cave as one of the most important Pleistocene hyena dens in Europe.