试论美国土著民族反对印第安人新政的原因

20世纪30年代的印第安人新政为了维护印第安人的利益、文化和传统,力图实现美国印第安人政策从同化到土著民族自治的转变。然而令人奇怪的是,印第安人新政却遭到美国土著民族的诸多强烈反对。究其原因可以归结为印第安人新政存在三大矛盾(1)印第安人新政的思想基础与被同化印第安人理念之间的矛盾;(2)印第安人新政的政策载体与印第安人传统习俗之间的矛盾;(3)印第安人新政的政策效果与印第安人的期望之间的矛盾。     

美国殖民地时期新英格兰清教徒对印第安人的形象建构

美国殖民地时期,新英格兰地区的清教徒基于自己的宗教观念塑造印第安人的形象。随着印白关系的演变,清教徒建构的印第安人形象也发生了变化。在初遇印第安人、改造印第安人、与印第安人作战这三个不同阶段,清教徒分别建构了“撒旦的仆人”“祈祷的印第安人”“恶魔的化身”三种印第安人形象。这三种形象都是清教徒对印第安人的“他者想象”,反映了清教徒自身的处境、焦虑和期待。清教徒对印第安人的恶魔想象,推动了美国种族主义和白人至上观念的发展,对美国的族群关系产生了深远影响。     

试析二战对美国印第安人的负面影响

第二次世界大战对美国印第安人的自治诉求产生了深远的负面影响。在二战的巨大冲击下,印第安人事务局被逐出政治权力中心华盛顿,人员不断流失,战时活动成为印第安人事务的中心,以恢复土著自治权为目标的印第安人新政归于瓦解。与此同时,印第安人在服役于美国军队和参加战时生产等活动的过程中,与主流社会频繁接触,从而加速了自身接受同化的进程。这些接受了白人生活方式的印第安人,在战后初期越来越关注如何维护个人权利而非印第安人自治,结果使美国社会同化印第安人进入主流社会的呼声成为理所当然之势,为结束联邦政府对印第安人部落监管提供了依据。受上述因素影响,美国公众舆论明显转向,取消联邦政府与印第安人的托管关系、同化印第安人进入主流社会成为当时美国社会的共识。     

白人到来前北美印第安人社会的疾病生态及其意义

在白人到来前相当长的时期内,印第安人社会疾病较少,印第安人身体相对健康。但是随着农业的发展和居住模式从游牧到定居的转变,土著社会中各种疾病开始增多,印第安人健康状况逐渐恶化。至哥伦布到来前夕,印第安人社会已经充斥着各种疾病,并非是很多学者所说的毫无疾病的"伊甸园"。白人到来前北美印第安人社会的疾病生态对白人到来之后的外来传染病入侵美洲具有重要的意义。印第安人已有的疾病削弱了土著民族的健康状况,导致外来传染病会产生更高的发病率和死亡率,大大加剧了该群体的疾病负荷。这一时期土著民族的疾病生态成为白人到来后外来传染病入侵、印第安人人口大量死亡、土著社会遭受严重打击的重要因素之一。     

安德鲁·杰克逊政府迁移印第安人的动因分析

19世纪20年代末到30年代初,以安德鲁.杰克逊为代表的美国官员和南部诸州认为文明开化政策已经失败,美国印第安人政策迫切需要改弦更张。恰恰就在此时,迁移印第安人到密西西比河以西的政策构想也日趋成型,为杰克逊政府提供了一种新的选择。当时南部要求维护州权和白人利益的压力,则最终推动美国政府决定以迁移作为解决印第安人问题的途径。美国政府不惜以牺牲印第安人为代价,残酷剥夺土著土地。杰克逊高贵的言辞和父权式的论调,并不能掩盖迁移政策现实中的操纵性和强制性。杰克逊时代的民主,实际上只是白人美国的民主,是以牺牲印第安人的权益为代价的。     

加拿大印第安人教育述论

在加拿大印第安人争取土著民族权益和自治的过程中,教育起着不可低 估的作用。印第安人教育有着本身特殊的含义和内容,“神圣生命圈”作为印第安人崇尚团结、相互依存、与自然和谐相处的标志,直接影响到印第安人教育的模式及过程。在过去的20多年中,印第安人教育取得了一定成绩,得到了加命大主流社会越来越广泛的认同。但是,印第安人教育在帮助印第安人实现民族自治方面,还有很长的路要走。     

二十世纪美国印第安人政策之演变与印第安人事务的发展

20世纪，美国联邦政府的印第安人政策发生了几次重大的转变，这给美国印第安人的社会生活带来了很多重大的也是极为复杂的变化。20世纪初联邦政府的印第安人政策是上一个世纪同化政策的继续，其目的是最终将印第安人纳入美国主流社会。颁布于1887年的《道     

试论美国西进运动史学(上)

西进运动是美国历史上的一个重大事件,其规模之大,影响之深远,不仅在美国而且在世界上也是罕见的。所谓“西进运动”就是开发、拓殖广大的西部,既是美国资本主义向横广面发展的过程,又是广大移民披荆斩棘开创建设的过程,而且伴随着对墨西哥的侵略和对印第安人的大屠杀。从十九世纪九十年代特纳学派兴起以来,美国学者关于这方面的著作和论文卷帙浩繁、诸家并起,形成了美国的西进运动史学。归纳起来,可分为三个发展时期。     

浅析西班牙殖民统治下印第安人境遇的嬗变

西班牙对美洲三百多年的殖民征服与统治给当地印第安人带来了无尽的屈辱与苦难。期间,印第安人的境遇虽然在多种因素的综合作用下经历了一个微妙的嬗变历程,但其表面上的"改善",并未从根本上改变印第安民族长期遭受剥削、压迫的历史命运。因而也就解释了印第安人作为早期拉美独立运动主力之一的深刻根源。     

浅析西班牙殖民统治下印第安人境遇的嬗变

西班牙对美洲三百多年的殖民征服与统治给当地印第安人带来了无尽的屈辱与苦难。期间,印第安人的境遇虽然在多种因素的综合作用下经历了一个微妙的嬗变历程,但其表面上的“改善”,并未从根夯上改变印第安民族长期遭受剥削、压迫的历史命运。因而也就解释了印第安人作为早期拉美独立运动主力之一的深刻根源。     

Alternative notions of sexuality and personhood: the case of Bal Gandharva

This article examines the meteoric rise and enormous popularity of a Marathi stage actor and singer, Bal Gandharva, in early twentieth-century western India. Gandharva was distinctive because he was a male artist who dressed and acted as a woman on stage and was adulated by both women and men for his powerful female roles. The article argues that Gandharva embodied ‘fuzzy’ boundaries between man and woman, drawing from indigenous traditions of gender fluidity. While maintaining strict boundaries between being a man in his personal life and a woman on stage, Gandharva tapped into alternative notions of masculinity. I argue that the adulation he experienced for his acting and singing as a woman points to transgressive possibilities in the otherwise conservative middle-class imagination and challenges what are colonial constructions of hyper-masculinity.     

Sound and identity explored through the Indian Tamil diaspora and Tamil Nadu

Sound is very much a part of identity. While identities are neither singular nor stable, they can be expressed through sound in daily life. Scholars have used soundscapes in geography to understand urban environments within cities, rural national park systems, and provide musical insights into cultural landscapes. However, furthering discussion on the role of sound in identity can move concepts of soundscape and cultural landscape forward. The goal of this paper is to investigate how identity and culture, though they are dynamic, can be performed and stabilized through sound in particular moments and yet also exist banally. Soundscapes through both spoken language and music can give geographers further insights on identity and place. Sound can also show how non-dominant identities distinguish themselves from larger national identities. With research in Tamil Nadu, India and Cleveland, OH, this paper examines sound’s role in identity, belonging, and community through lived experience and performance. Focusing on intersections and tensions between soundscapes, this paper investigates how the Tamil soundscape is used to assert and perform identity.     

海外印度移民及印度政府的侨务政策

作为人口大国之一 ,印度与中国一样 ,有着庞大的海外移民群体及其后裔。目前 ,海外印度人已超过二千万人 ,分布在 1 1 0个国家和地区。上世纪 90年代以来 ,随着海外印度人对所在国和印度影响的增强 ,海外印度人在印度及海外都引起了比以前更多的关注。印度政府采取了一系列措施 ,以吸引更多的海外印度人投身印度国内的经济建设 ,为印度的发展作贡献。本文概述海外印度移民的基本情况 ,分析海外印度人与印度的联系及对印度的影响以及印度政府对海外移民的政策 ,希望从中能得到某些启示 ,从而对中国的侨务政策提供某些参考和借鉴。     

No longer good girls: sexual transgressions in Indian women's writings

Indian women's writing in English has long depicted Indian women as victims of society, whose rights are routinely exploited and whose welfare and happiness are commonly sacrificed for the good of their families and communities. The literature has often depicted the women as complicit, accepting and upholding the definition of a good woman as one who is faithful, virtuous, self-effacing and obedient. This definition is also one the women instil in their daughters, thus reinforcing this code of ethics. This article observes that there is a tide running contrary to this and that there is a new breed of women in twenty-first century Indian literary fiction in English: women who are single and married, working and non-working, middle and upper-middle class and wives and mothers, who are no longer prepared to be ‘good girls’. These women knowingly, thoughtfully and successfully defy societal conventions to have pre and extramarital affairs, divorces and even custody battles for children, without shame, guilt, dire consequences or even societal condemnation. This article argues that these writings represent a quietly radical departure from the conventional depictions of the roles, expectations and morals of middle-class urban twenty-first century Indian women.     

The Royal Indian Navy Mutiny of 1946: Nationalist Competition and Civil-Military Relations in Postwar India

This article argues for the importance of the Royal Indian Navy mutiny of 1946 in two key aspects of the transition towards Indian independence: civilian control over the Indian military, and a competition for power between Congress and communists that undermined Indian workers and their student allies. The article begins with an investigation of the mutiny drawing on three sources: a first-person account from a lead mutineer, a communist history of the mutiny, and the papers published in the Towards Freedom collection. In 1946 a handful of low-ranking sailors sparked a naval mutiny that ultimately involved upwards of 20,000 sailors, and then crashed into the streets of Bombay with revolutionary fervour. The Communist Party in Bombay seized upon the mutiny as an opportunity to rally the working class against the British raj, with the hope of ending British rule through revolution rather than negotiation. Yet the mutiny proved less of a harbinger of what was ending and more of a bellwether for what was to come. Congress, sensing the danger of the moment, snuffed out support for the mutiny, and insisted on a negotiated transfer of power. Congress’s action thereby set a precedent for civilian dominance over the military in post-independence India. At the same time, however, Congress betrayed the effectiveness of some of organised labour’s strongest advocates, namely the Communist Party, Bombay students and Bombay labour, thereby undermining their costly mass protest, and hobbling them in future conflicts against Indian capitalists.     

Liberal,Liminal and Lost: India’s First Diplomats and the Narrative of Foreign Policy

Indian historiography has largely overlooked the contribution of Indian Liberals in the pre-independence era. It is worse in Indian diplomatic history where studies on pre-independence are few and far between. Responding to this double excision, this article traces the emergence of a new Indian narrative of foreign policy around the issues of equality and justice in the immediate aftermath of the First World War. Anchoring their argumentativeness in diplomatic finesse, Indian Liberals such as Satyendra Prasanno Sinha, V. S. Srinivasa Sastri and Tej Bahadur Sapru relentlessly campaigned for racial equality and predominance of the rights of people over the rights of states at the Imperial Conferences. In the articulation of these views, South Africa, a country where ideas about the status of Indians and Indian civilisation were most contested, emerged as the singular foreign policy ‘other’ around which India’s foreign policy narrative was constructed.     

Mythology Wars: The Indian Diaspora, “Wendy's Children” and the Struggle for the Hindu Past

A schism has appeared between sections of the Indian diasporic community and members of the Western academy over the authority to present and interpret Hindu mythology. This paper tells the story of these “Mythology Wars”. It focuses on critiques of Western scholarship by self-identified Hindu critics, primarily Rajiv Malhotra in his articles ‘RISA Lila–1: Wendy's Child Syndrome’ and ‘RISA Lila–2: Limp Scholarship and Demonology’ (Malhotra, 2002 and 2003). The primary foci of diasporic criticism are Wendy Doniger's writings, including The Hindus (2009), and three works by other scholars, Jeffrey Kripal (Kālī's Child,1995), Sarah Caldwell (‘The Blood-thirsty Tongue and the Self-feeding Breast’, 1999) and Paul Courtright (Ga[ndot]e?a, 1985). There is no end in sight to the Mythology Wars. It is unlikely that critics in the diaspora will become less vigilant or less vocal. While members of the Western academy may become more circumspect and more sensitive to the potential strife they face, they are unlikely to impose any form of self-censorship. The defence of “academic freedom” has a long and deep history.     

缅甸中、印移民同化问题比较分析

移民同化于当地是一种多维的社会互动过程,其表现和影响因素是多方面的。近代以来迁移缅甸的华人和印度移民同化于当地的情况是不同的。本文从语言、宗教信仰、生活习俗和族际通婚四个方面概述了华人和印度人的同化情况,认为华人比印度人更快同化于当地。本文也分析了影响二者同化程度不同的原因,认为主要是二者在人口、经济、移民性质、宗教信仰、种姓、偏见、体质等七个方面的差异所致。作者指出,上述七个影响因素并不单独具有绝对的解释力,它们相互交织,彼此作用,形成影响华人和印度人同化情况不同的合力。     

“哥德堡”号走私鸦片的反思

“哥德堡”号商船的主人瑞典东印度公司,虽然号称从未向中国贩运过鸦片,但其实是中国贩运鸦片的始作俑者。清廷对国内社会各阶层普遍吸食鸦片现象控制不力,从而变相助长了西方列强的鸦片倾销行为,加速了晚清封建社会的崩溃。     

The Enigma of 'Aydhab: a Medieval Islamic Port on the Red Sea Coast

The medieval Islamic port of 'Aydhab played a major role in the hajj and in trade with Yemen, India and the Far East. A recent satellite image reveals the layout of the town in some detail, but there seems to be no trace of a viable harbour. Yet there was a fine secure harbour at Halaib, 20 km to the south. We tentatively suggest that the main port of 'Aydhab was separate from the town. This hypothesis can only be verified by fieldwork and our objective in this paper is draw attention to the problem rather than to resolve it.
© 2007 The Authors