Minority–Majority Relations in the Schelling Model of Residential Dynamics. 住宅动态迁移Schelling模型中的少数‐多数关系

The Schelling model describing segregation between two groups of residential agents, reflects the most abstract, basic view of noneconomic forces motivating residential migrations: be close to people of “your own” kind. The model assumes that residential agents, located in neighborhoods where the fraction of “friends” is less than a predefined threshold value F, try to relocate to neighborhoods where this fraction is F or higher. For groups of equal size, Schelling's residential pattern converges either to complete integration (random pattern) or segregation, depending on F. We investigate Schelling model pattern dynamics as a function of F in addition to two other parameters—the ratio of groups' numbers, and neighborhood size. We demonstrate that the traditional integration–segregation pattern dichotomy should be extended. In the case of groups of different sizes, a wide interval of F‐values exists that entails a third persistent residential pattern, one in which a portion of the majority population segregates while the rest remains integrated with the minority. We also demonstrate that Schelling model dynamics essentially depend on the formalization of urban agents' residential behavior. To obtain realistic results, the agents should be satisficers, and the fraction of the agents relocating irrespective of the neighborhood's state should be nonzero. We discuss the relationship between our results and real‐world residential dynamics.     

Spatial and social mobility

This paper analyzes the relationship between spatial mobility and social mobility. It develops a two‐skill‐type spatial equilibrium model of two regions with location preferences where each region consists of an urban area that is home to workplaces and residences and an exclusively residential suburban area. The paper demonstrates that relative regional social mobility is negatively correlated with segregation and inequality. In the model, segregation, income inequality, and social mobility are driven by differences between urban and residential areas in commuting cost differences between high‐skilled and low‐skilled workers, and also by the magnitude of taste heterogeneity.     

Influence of Race on Household Residential Utility

Residential location choice models are an important tool employed by urban geographers, planners, and transportation engineers for understanding household residential location behavior and for predicting future residential location activity. Racial segregation and residential racial preferences have been studied extensively using a variety of analysis techniques in social science research, but racial preferences have generally not been adequately incorporated into residential location choice models. This research develops residential location choice model specifications with a variety of alternative methods of addressing racial preferences in residential location decisions. The research tests whether social class, family structure, and in‐group racial preferences are sufficient to explain household sensitivity to neighborhood racial composition. The importance of the interaction between the proportion of in‐group race neighbors and other‐race neighbors is also evaluated. Models for the San Francisco Bay metropolitan area are estimated and evidence of significant avoidance behavior by households of all races is found. The results suggest that social class differences, family structure differences, and in‐group racial preferences alone are not sufficient to explain household residential racial preference and that households of all races practice racial avoidance behavior. Particularly pronounced avoidance of black neighbors by Asian households, Hispanic neighbors by black households, and Asian neighbors by white households are found. Evidence of a decrease in household racial avoidance intensity in neighborhoods with large numbers of own‐race neighbors is also found.     

NEIGHBORHOOD DYNAMICS AND PRICE EFFECTS OF SUPERFUND SITE CLEAN‐UP*

ABSTRACT Numerous hedonic price analyses estimate price effects associated with hazardous waste site remediation or other environmental variation. This paper estimates a neighborhood transition model to capture the direct price effect from Superfund site clean‐up and the indirect price effects arising from residential sorting and changes in investment in the housing stock following clean‐up. First‐difference models of neighborhood change and a national sample are used. This approach fails to find consistent positive direct price effects. Positive indirect effects, however, may arise through residential sorting and neighborhood investment spurred by remediation. The findings can be sensitive to policy endogeneity and model specification.     

HAPPY IN THE HOOD? THE IMPACT OF RESIDENTIAL SEGREGATION ON SELF‐REPORTED HAPPINESS

Previous research consistently finds that racially based residential segregation is associated with poor economic, health, and social outcomes. The purpose of this paper is to explore the relationship between residential segregation and self‐reported happiness. Using panel data from the National Survey of Families and Households (NSFH), we begin by estimating ordinary least squares (OLS) regressions of happiness on a measure of MSA‐level segregation, controlling for a rich set of individual, neighborhood, regional, and state characteristics. The OLS results suggest that increased segregation is associated with a reduction in happiness among blacks. To deal more appropriately with the potential endogeneity of location choice, we extend the methodology to fully exploit the panel structure of the NSFH and incorporate individual fixed effects into the happiness equation. Contrary to the OLS results, our fixed effects estimates imply that blacks are happier in more segregated metropolitan areas. The paper discusses the implications of these results within the context of current integration policies.     

The relationship between neighborhood design and social capital as measured by carpooling

This paper examines whether social capital in a neighborhood is influenced by its design, taking the cul‐de‐sac as a special case. It offers two contributions: using carpooling to school as a proxy for social capital and a precise definition of the neighborhood using geo‐coded survey data from California. Living in a cul‐de‐sac neighborhood is found to increase the probability of carpooling, but the effect loses statistical significance when residential self‐selection is accounted for. The analysis reveals competing insights about the self‐selection behavior that must be resolved before neighborhood design can be considered an effective policy tool for enhancing social capital.     

VEHICLE ACCESS AND EXPOSURE TO NEIGHBORHOOD POVERTY: EVIDENCE FROM THE MOVING TO OPPORTUNITY PROGRAM

The geographic determinants of social and economic opportunity have received much scholarly attention. A missing link in this body of research is an emphasis on the range of factors influencing low‐income households’ exposure to neighborhood poverty over time. This paper examines the dynamics of exposure to neighborhood poverty for Moving to Opportunity (MTO) program participants. Our paper is unique in its emphasis on the role of vehicle access as it shapes exposure to neighborhood poverty. We find that vehicle access is an important factor shaping residential spells and transitions to low‐poverty neighborhoods over time. We also find that the combined influence of a geographically‐targeted residential mobility requirement and vehicle access substantially elevates a household's likelihood of accessing and staying in a low‐poverty neighborhood. These findings suggest that residential mobility programs and similar efforts to spatially deconcentrate poverty should pay particular attention to the transportation needs of low‐income households.     

Divided Post‐Soviet Small Cities? Residential Segregation and Urban Form in Leninogorsk and Zyryanovsk,Kazakhstan

This paper maps and analyses ethnic and socio‐economic residential segregation in two small post‐Soviet mining and enrichment cities in Eastern Kazakhstan, Leninogorsk and Zyryanovsk. The study is based on data collected by the author in collaboration with the Eastern Kazakhstan oblast' statistical authority in an extensive questionnaire survey carried out during January 2001. The paper investigates the linkages between the physical spatial structure of small post‐Soviet cities and the socio‐spatial landscape that has unfolded in their context, and attempts to identify the principal factors that underlie the observed segregation patterns.     

A NOTE ON NEIGHBORHOOD SIZE AND THE MEASUREMENT OF SEGREGATION INDICES*

This note examines neighborhood segregation measures with respect to size and validity. Conventional measures, while related to within-neighborhood homogeneity, are not necessarily related to neighborhood size. An empirical test examines racial segregation for Baltimore in 1970 and 1980 using both census tract and specially formulated neighborhood aggregates. For both years, and for all measures of segregation, the values and trends are essentially unchanged by the level of aggregation.     

La ségrégation économique comme un phénomène complexe : une analyse spatio-temporelle du cas montréalais

Economic segregation, or residential inequalities based on income, is a complex spatial process. It is associated with structures which arise at certain scales and which evolve in time. In this paper, we analyse the evolution of economic segregation in Montréal from 1980 to 2000. This analysis is based on household's income and on their distribution within the residential space from four scales: households, census tracts, municipalities and some radio-concentric zones. Results confirm that the spatial organisation of economic segregation is scale dependent. More precisely, local inequalities are growing more rapidly but this trend does not prevent the consolidation of metropolitan-sized clusters. Moreover, results confirm that Montréal's economic segregation follows North American trends like the growth of economic disparities (spatial or not) or the fact that the enrichment of central and ex-urban neighbourhoods is compensated by the impoverishment of inner-ring suburbs.     

RESIDENTIAL MOBILITY AND NEIGHBORHOOD QUALITY*

ABSTRACT. This paper presents evidence on the factors causing residential mobility within inner-city neighborhoods. A theoretical model is presented which posits that intraurban mobility is a response to housing consumption disequilibrium. Our data and methodology permitted more accurate measurement of disequilibrium than in previous studies, including the disequilibrium arising from neighborhood change. The major conclusion we draw from our results is that households' perceptions of the level of neighborhood quality and its change influence the mobility decisions of both renters and homeowners residing within central cities. Also, in comparison to other measured factors, neighborhood variables were found to be strong mobility predictors regardless of housing tenure. Our results imply that neighborhood improvement policies may succeed in stabilizing inner-city neighborhoods.     

国内外城市居住空间研究的回顾与展望

住宅作为城市的重要职能和城市空间结构的重要组成部分,长期以来地理学、经济学、社会学、政治学等不同学科的学者一直关注城市居住和相关理论的研究。本文在全面阐述西方居住空间研究的理论、方法、研究领域和研究成果的基础上,对我国有关城市居住空间的研究领域和研究进展进行回顾,并展望有待进一步深化研究的领域。     

沟通空间变革与人本的邻里场所体系架构--西方绅士化对中国大城市社会空间的启示

本文从对西方绅士化的回顾和反思中认识到,中产阶级对于和谐沟通氛围的追求损害了低收入居民的利益,从而引发笔者提出"沟通空间"概念,并对国内大城市沟通空间的现状进行了总结。对比人本的社会空间趋势,笔者认为有必要对大城市沟通空间进行变革,认为合理的沟通空间对社区融合和发展起到一定作用,在此基础上提出了"共生性竞争邻里场所体系"的规划布局模式和形成机制。     

Immigration,new religious symbols,and the dynamics of neighborhoods

Last decades' non-western immigration to Europe has resulted in culturally and religiously more diverse populations in many countries. One manifestation of this diversification is new features in the cityscape. Using a quasiexperimental approach, in which an unexpected political process that led way to the first public call to prayer from a mosque in Sweden is combined with rich, daily, information on housing sales and detailed monthly information on internal migration, this paper examines how one such new feature affects neighborhood dynamics. While our results indicate that the calls to prayer increased house prices closer to the mosque, we find no evidence of increased residential segregation between natives and immigrants.     

Residential Development,Risk, and Land Prices

This paper examines the relationship between the residential development sequence and land price. Inherent in the dynamics of residential development is that the first consumers face the greatest risk since they do not know with certainty what the neighborhood characteristics will be; subsequent consumers have more information. The model predicts that land prices will rise over time relative to the market; developers offer the first consumers discounted land prices to compensate them for the first-mover disadvantage. The empirical evidence indicates that this is indeed the case.     

Measuring the Scale of Segregation Using k‐Nearest Neighbor Aggregates

Nearly all segregation measures use some form of administrative unit (usually tracts in the United States) as the base for the calculation of segregation indices, and most of the commonly used measures are aspatial. The spatial measures that have been proposed are often not easily computed, although there have been significant advances in the past decade. We provide a measure that is individually based (either persons or very small administrative units) and a technique for constructing neighborhoods that does not require administrative units. We show that the spatial distribution of different population groups within an urban area can be efficiently analyzed with segregation measures that use population count‐based definitions of neighborhood scale. We provide a variant of a k‐nearest neighbor approach and a statistic spatial isolation and a methodology (EquiPop) to map, graph, and evaluate the likelihood of individuals meeting other similar race individuals or of meeting individuals of a different ethnicity. The usefulness of this approach is demonstrated in an application of the method to data for Los Angeles and three metropolitan areas in Sweden. This comparative approach is important as we wish to show how the technique can be used across different cultural contexts. The analysis shows how the scale (very small neighborhoods, larger communities, or cities) influences the segregation outcomes. Even if microscale segregation is strong, there may still be much more mixing at macroscales.     

民族视角下社会空间分异研究的时空间行为转向

全球化与快速城市化过程中，城市内部以不同种族、民族为代表的多元社会群体，因其社会文化背景、生活习惯等不同而存在诸多差异，群体间的空间分异与融合正成为城市发展中的重要科学问题。本研究梳理了基于居住空间的国内外种族/民族社会空间研究，指出，在城市研究移动性转向的背景下，社会空间分异的研究正在突破传统的静态居住空间研究的局限而出现移动性转向，且在群体间行为差异、活动空间的种族/民族分异测度、少数族裔可达性劣势和混合地理学方法等方面展开了研究。在此基础上，本研究进一步提出了民族视角的社会空间分异时空间行为研究框架，以期为理解中国城市社会空间分异、解读民族的日常生活与社会空间融合提供新的视角。     

The residential propinquity of kin in a Cambridgeshire village, 1841

This study examines kinship networks in a Cambridgeshire village, Melbourn, in 1841, using evidence derived from the census of that year. It focuses on the measurement and exploration of the residential propinquity of kin as a contribution to research on the historical geography of mobility and segregation in nineteenth-century society.     

NEIGHBORHOOD EFFECTS AND PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT IN THE INTERGENERATIONAL TRANSMISSION OF EDUCATION*

ABSTRACT We analyze the intergenerational transmission of education focusing on the interplay between family and neighborhood effects. We develop a theoretical model suggesting that both neighborhood quality and parental effort are of importance for the education attained by children. This model proposes a mechanism explaining why and how they are of importance, distinguishing between high‐ and low‐educated parents. We then bring this model to the data using a longitudinal dataset in Britain. The available information on social housing in big cities allows us to identify the role of neighborhood in educational outcomes. We find that the better the quality of the neighborhood, the higher is the parents' involvement in their children's education. A novel finding with respect to previous U.S. studies is that family is of importance for children with highly educated parents while it is the community that is crucial for the educational achievement of children from low‐educated families.     

Is Sydney a Divided City Ethnically?

Recent claims that Sydney's ethnic residential concentrations are a permanent feature and that the city is rapidly turning into a city bifurcated along an ethnic divide cannot be sustained by the evidence. An understanding of multicultural policies as they operate in Australia, and of segregation as essentially a transitory phenomenon there, suggests that social bifurcation is unlikely to occur. Immigrant concentrations in the poor suburbs are nothing new, and do not imply the entrapment of ethnic groups. While immigrant residential concentrations are increasing in size, commensurate with the influx of large numbers of migrants from non‐English speaking backgrounds over the past 30 years, the evidence suggests that claims of bifurcation are a product of the usage of birthplace data, the aggregation of ethnic groups into just two groups and a failure to take account of the degree of mixing. Evidence from both birthplace and ancestry data using different levels of ethnic aggregation and more appropriate analyses shows that Sydney is dominated by an intermixing of different ethnic groups with each other and with the host society, and not by high levels of ethnic segregation. Ancestry data from the 2001 Census show the spatial assimilation into the host society of the grandchildren, but less so the children, of immigrants in Sydney with similar rates for both the white non‐Anglo‐Celtic and the Asian populations.