A Hybrid Masonry and Steel Mirror-Type Vault with Lunettes: Survey and Structural Analysis

ABSTRACT

The structural analysis of a mirror-type vault, consisting of a single- or double-curvature perimeter and a nearly flat part, is carried out. The vault is similar to a number of hybrid iron (or steel) and masonry vaults built between the late 19th century and the early 20th century to span large halls. The numerical analyses were preceded by an accurate geometrical survey and mechanical tests aimed at evaluating the properties of the materials. Thermography allowed the complex brick pattern of the vault to be detected. The influence of rib-walls (frenelli) and the material anisotropy on the stress and deformation of the vault is discussed. Eventually, attention is focused on one of the segmental vaults in the central part of the structure: it is found that the stress can be safely estimated by assuming its boundary to be fixed.     

Experimental Studies on Buried Barrel Vaults

The paper concerns an interaction problem between soil and masonry vaults in historic buildings. A particular emphasis was placed on the influence of finishing method of vaults extrados and fill material properties on the behavior of masonry vaults. The results of experimental studies on barrel vaults with and without backfill are presented. During the experiments three finishing methods of vaults extrados and three fill materials were investigated. The results of the experiments show that the presence of backfill and type of vaults extrados finish affect the behavior and load-carrying capacity of tested elements. Moreover, tests were performed on vaults without fill for comparative purposes. The comparison of experimental results obtained for specimens with and without fill shows that the presence of backfill in vault haunches modifies the failure mechanism and increases load capacity of the analysed models. The presented results confirm the importance of backfill as a structural element of vaulted structures.     

Historic Barrel Vaults Undergoing Differential Settlements

ABSTRACT

A principal reason of damage in historic masonry vaults consists in relative displacements of the vaults’ abutments. Excluding the case of seismic-induced damage, cracks are often produced by differential settlements generated by the lateral wall instability or soil degradation (e.g., due to stress concentrations, non-uniform soil stratigraphy, flooding phenomena etc.). When dealing with historic vaults, the effects of long-term deformation processes cannot often be linked directly to causes, which may also be unknown. In this article, the effects of differential settlements on historic masonry barrel vaults are investigated. An efficient 3D contact-based model was developed to reproduce experiments on a scaled pointed barrel vault (representative of a typology of late-medieval barrel vaults in Scotland) under non-uniform differential settlement. First, the numerical model is used to simulate the experimental campaign, achieving good agreement in terms of crack pattern (longitudinal shear) and transverse-longitudinal deformation profiles. Then, further analyses are carried out to gain insight on the effects of several plausible uniform and non-uniform settlement patterns on representative historic barrel vaults. Various settlement configurations were analysed and complex failure patterns observed. This study could help analysts in understanding the nature of on-going deformation process in historic masonry vaults and engineers in the design of strengthening strategies.     

Discrete Element Modeling of Groin Vault Displacement Capacity

Displacements experienced by many historic masonry structures concentrate at masonry joints and can be large before collapse is a concern, making modeling of stability using discrete element modeling (DEM) particularly suitable. In this study, masonry groin vault and arch models with several geometries were subjected to horizontal and vertical support displacements using DEM. Support movements were applied in a quasi-static manner to simulate the support settlement process. Displacements at collapse and at the point when the first block fell from the vault were recorded. Block separation and mechanisms were also noted during the simulations. A two-dimensional (2D) analytical model using thrust line analysis was developed to help evaluate the DEM results. In general, the displacements at first block fall were relatively large but significantly less than those at collapse. The groin vaults and arches exhibited significantly higher capacity to sustain vertical support displacement compared to horizontal displacements. For many geometries, the DEM collapse displacements of the groin vaults compared reasonably well to similar arches, indicating that the displacement capacity of groin vaults can be reasonably estimated using 2D simplifications. However, for certain geometries, three-dimensional effects were found to significantly affect displacement capacity.     

Minimum Thrust of Rounded Cross Vaults

This study analyzes the static behavior of the rounded cross vaults based on the limit analysis approach developed for masonry structures and adopts a rigid no-tension constitutive model with no sliding. The kinematic theorem of the limit analysis with a compatible tridimensional mechanism is applied on these structures with the aim of evaluating the minimum thrust. In this way it was possible to build some abaci in which the ratio between the minimum thrust and the weight is plotted versus the geometrical characteristics of the vaults. Finally, the proposed abaci are used to calculate the thrust of the main vault of the Diocletian Baths in Rome.     

Geometry,Construction and Structural Analysis of the Crossed-Arch Vault of the Chapel of Villaviciosa,in the Mosque of Córdoba

The vault of Villaviciosa is one of the oldest existing examples of a true ribbed vault, and is the first of the crossed-arch type. Although its perfection suggests earlier trials, none has been found so far. It predates the oldest Romanesque ribbed vaults by more than a century. Notwithstanding its importance, no construction and structural study has ever been done; neither has an accurate survey been published. The purpose of this article is to fill this gap in the history of vault construction. A detailed survey has been made, providing the first accurate drawings of the vault. A close inspection of the extrados, completed with a visual inspection of interior damages, has allowed ascertaining the main construction features. With the geometry and the material data a structural analysis has been carried out. This analysis explains the fundamental structural behavior of the vault and throws new light into some historical issues; for example, it leads to discarding the widespread belief that the ribs are decorative: they are supporting the weight of the vault.     

A Fifteenth-Century Painted Sermon at the Door of the Cathedral of Bressanone

Abstract

This article argues that a portion of the fifteenth-century frescos at the entrance door from the cloister to the cathedral of Bressanone can be seen as a painted sermon. The analysis draws on the frescos of two vaults and the interaction between words and images. In the first vault, just above the entrance of the church, the frescos present not only the contents of a sermon, but also its structure, namely an episode from the Gospel, a catechetical pattern, the quotation of auctoritates and a social goal to be achieved. The frescos of the second vault represent the contrast between virtues and vices using the pairs presented in Matthew 24. 40–41. This text was read by the medieval exegetical tradition as a scheme for the different status of Christian life, thus this vault could be seen as an elaborate catechetical pattern with a large system of biblical quotations. Moreover, the structure of the frescos of the second vault can be read as a sermo modernus based on the divisio of Matthew 24. 40–41. Finally, the comparison with a portion of a sermon by Bernardino da Siena on the theme of avarice confirms that the elements represented in Bressanone were really used both by preachers and painters.

In this way, the images of the cloister are a sermon, which continually preaches to anyone entering or leaving the church, thus organizing the public space as a 'theatre of memory' and offering a message readable at different levels.     

Design and Analysis of Cross Vaults Along History

The history of cross vaults began almost 2,000 years ago with a widespread use during the Middle Ages and Renaissance, becoming nowadays one of the most diffused and fascinating structural typologies of the European building cultural heritage. However, conversely to the undeniable excellence achieved by the ancient masons, the structural behavior of these elements is still at the center of the scientific debate. In this regard, with the aim of reviewing the knowledge on this subject as a concise and valuable support for researchers involved in conservation of historical buildings, with a focus on design rules and structural analysis, the present study firstly introduces the cross vaults from a historical perspective, by describing the evolution of the main geometrical shapes together with basic practical rules used to size them. Then, the article deals with the subsequent advancements in structural analysis methods of vaults, until the development of modern limit analysis.     

Southchurch Hall

Abstract

In 1437 Sherborne Abbey church was deliberately set on fire as the result of a quarrel between certain parishioners and the monks. The tower and chancel of the church were being rebuilt at the time. This paper records the results of a detailed study of the masonry which had been discoloured by scorching, and the conclusions deduced therefrom. These include: some modifications of the story of the fire as interpreted by Professor R. Willis in 1865, and deductions on the course and extent of the fire, the stage that the rebuilding had reached and its sequence of construction. The survey also proves that the fan vaults and clerestory windows of the east end were completed after the fire to their original design. The paper ends with some discussion about the possible architect, and an assessment of the design and influence of the fan vaults.     

In-Situ Destructive Testing of Ancient Strengthened Masonry Vaults

ABSTRCT

Developing suitable tools to assess the actual structural performance and designing and executing interventions to improve that performance is a key issue in the field of conservation and enhancement of architectural heritage. This article presents the results of five full-scale destructive tests performed on the Castello di San Pietro in Verona (North-East Italy), a building set on a hill above the city and going back to the 19th century under the Habsburg Empire. It evaluates the behavior of the barrel vaults of 5.6 m span, 1.1 m rise, and 27 cm thickness in the original building. Although experimental work is common in the relevant literature, the testing program described here was not performed on reconstructed vaults but on original elements, which can reveal their real behavior more clearly. Four strengthening solutions were also evaluated, in which organic and inorganic fibers were applied to both types of matrix.     

Reinforcement of the 18th Century Buttresses of Maniace Castle: Design and Execution

ABSTRACT

Maniace Castle, built on Ortygia island in Siracusa (Italy) in the first half of the 13th century and hosting a magnificent hypostyle hall (the Salone), a square area covered by 25 cross vaults supported by columns, was severely damaged by the 1693 earthquake and the explosion of the ammunition dump in 1704. The buttresses, built immediately afterward to counteract the thrust of the 10 surviving vaults, did not guarantee adequate seismic safety so that a metal scaffolding was installed in 2001 to prevent an overturning mechanism. This article discusses the design and execution of an external pre-stressing steel system to increase existing buttress strength and the seismic capacity of the Salone, starting with historical and constructional analyses and dealing with both analytical and technical aspects. The monitoring system installed to detect structural response during and after the working execution is shown, along with some of the data acquired so far.     

Historical Notices of ISLIP,Oxfordshire1

Reginald Taylor and Lord Fletcher Essay Prize Winner

One of the most architecturally stimulating features of the Old Town Bridge Tower in Prague is the net vault over the ground level, designed by Peter Parler. Often assumed to have been built after the net vault of Prague Cathedral’s choir, this article looks more closely at the masonry, the heraldry and the sculptures of the Tower to suggest that the Bridge Tower vault predates the choir vault. After setting this vault as the first net vault in Bohemia, the article examines how this particular formt fits within the evolution of Parlerian vault designs in Prague. In addition, the article explores the larger implications of a design process where smaller spaces are used to experiment and develop new designs before utilising those designs on a larger scale.     

Rodrigo Gil de Hontañón and 16th-Century Building Techniques: The Cimborio Vault of Archbishop Fonseca College Chapel in Salamanca (Spain)

Rodrigo Gil is one of the greatest masters of Spanish architecture. His brilliant career is partially explained by the efficiency of his design methods and his building techniques, especially evident in his ribbed vaults. If we examine the latter as a whole, the first aspect to be noted is undoubtedly their great formal complexity. However, the detailed study discloses that rather limited geometric and building techniques are hidden behind those elaborated patterns, aimed at simplifying and making the execution more economical. In order to bring some of these devices to light, one of his best-known vaults was selected for an in-depth study. The construction of a large-scale model of it also revealed some interesting features regarding the placing of the centerings and shorings during the erection.     

Reconstruction of the Rib Vaults of the Hypostyle Hall in the Maniace Castle of Siracusa After the 1693 Earthquake

Built in the first half of the 13th century on behalf of the Emperor Frederick II, the Maniace Castle of Siracusa focuses its enigma in the hypostyle hall (which was composed of 25 quadripartite rib vaults) and the design criteria adopted for its implementation. Recent research and a careful rereading of the documentary “restoration project” after the earthquake of 1693 have offered new tools to understand the construction techniques and building procedures for the entire organism. It has been possible to demonstrate that the different material (white limestone and volcanic stone) used for the vaults is, in fact, a product of reconstruction. The constructive node, which historiography has taken for granted, is now crucial—the documentary evidence of the restoration after the earthquake compared with the materials found in situ provide interpretive keys to decode genesis and procedures of the huge structure built five centuries before.     

Vault thickness in two Pleistocene Australian crania

This study examines vault thickness in two Pleistocene crania at the centre of discussions about the evolution of Indigenous Australians and competing scenarios about modern human origins: Willandra Lakes Human (WLH) 3 and WLH 50. We estimated total vault thickness and thickness of the diploë, external and internal table on CT-scans, and undertook a quantitative comparison of them. We found that they differ significantly in absolute thickness, but are similar in terms of the relative contribution to thickness made by the diploic space and total table. They also differ significantly in terms of relative variation in thickness, and in several instances, WLH 50 shows greater variability than WLH 3. This finding undermines pathology as an explanation for thickness in the former cranium. Among later hominins, WLH 50 is highly unusual in possessing an extremely thick vault at bregma. We show, however, that vault thickness at this landmark is positively allometrically scaled in Indigenous Australians, but negatively scaled in Ngandong Homo erectus. Thus, vault thickness is mostly explained by the extremely large size of WLH 50: one of the largest hominin crania ever found. Moreover, its extreme thickness firmly establishes its affinities with modern humans rather than the Ngandong group. Despite the important role played by epigenesis in the development of the cranial vault, similarities between WLH 3 and WLH 50 indicate some canalisation in the extent to which the various vault components contribute to total thickness.     

PROVENANCING OF LIGHTWEIGHT VOLCANIC STONES USED IN ANCIENT ROMAN CONCRETE VAULTING: EVIDENCE FROM TURKEY AND TUNISIA

The mastery of the use of lightweight rocks in concrete as a means of controlling the thrusts of large‐scale vaults was among the most important contributions of the Roman builders to the development of vaulted architecture. The string of volcanoes along the Tyrrhenian coast of Italy produced a variety of lightweight rocks, which allowed the builders in Rome to develop highly sophisticated ways of manipulating form and mass to create stable structures. The use of lighter rocks in vaults and heavier in foundations occurs from the mid‐first century bc in Rome, but the systematic use of imported lightweight rocks only began in the early second century ad under Trajan ( Lancaster 2005 , 59–64). Soon thereafter, the technique of using lightweight stones to build large vaults spread throughout the empire, usually to areas that had a local source of lightweight volcanic material. However, there was also a seaborne trade in lightweight rocks to areas that did not have local sources of such material. The intention of our analysis is to determine as precisely as possible the provenance of the lightweight stones used in vaulting of two areas of the Mediterranean, modern Turkey (ancient Cilicia) and Tunisia (ancient Africa Proconsularis), and thus to provide a better understanding of the nature of this trade.     

VAULTED CONSTRUCTION IN FRENCH MEGALITHIC TOMBS

Summary. The passage graves of France now have a serious claim to be the earliest known corbelled vaults. The structural mechanics of these buildings is investigated through an analysis of the vaults at Barnenez and Ile Carn, the only examples surviving complete. The cultural setting of the French passage graves and their typology are briefly reviewed. Chambers G, G'and F of the great mound at Barnenez and the central chamber of Ile Carn are described with reference to the materials used and their construction. The theory underlying our analysis of corbelling is introduced and the results of the analysis summarised. All three of the chambers at Barnenez are found to follow the same formula, indicating the same technique was used over the different phases of construction. Ile Carn, however, is vaulted in a completely different manner. These findings are placed in the broader context of the development of megalithic architecture.     

The Dynamic Behavior of the Basilica of San Francesco in Assisi Using Simplified Analytical Models

The Basilica of San Francesco in Assisi endured stronger earthquakes for centuries before 1997 earthquake, which generated the collapse of the two vaults. Experts blame as possible reasons of collapse the damage cumulated from previous earthquakes and/or the retrofitting made to the structure over its lifetime. This article presents the history of the retrofit interventions of the Basilica through the centuries, focusing mainly on the roof, which has been subjected to three major restorations through its life. It is shown using simple analytical models that the cumulative effects of the changes made to the roof of the Basilica affected the structure’s dynamic behavior in a negative manner, increasing the seismic loads on the existing structural members. In particular, the numerical results show that the 1958 roof intervention has stiffened the structure, redistributing the seismic loads on the façade and the transept. This overload might explain the collapse of the two Gothic vaults during 1997 earthquake.     

PROVENANCING OF LIGHTWEIGHT VOLCANIC STONES USED IN ANCIENT ROMAN CONCRETE VAULTING: EVIDENCE FROM ROME

This paper presents the geochemical analysis of lightweight scoria and pumice used in concrete vaults from ancient Rome. The geochemical signatures of dark scoria indicates a provenance of the 36–18 ka lavas of Vesuvius, as opposed to the more recent events on which Pompeii was built, as previously thought. The light‐coloured pumices analysed, which were originally thought to belong to the Sabatini volcanic system (north of Rome), corresponded instead to products from Campi Flegrei. These results provoke re‐evaluation of the trade and acquisition of these specialized materials destined for imperial projects in the capital city.     

A metric study of three types of artificial cranial modification from north‐central Peru

Artificial cranial modification (ACM) involves the alteration of cranial vault shape by cultural means, and is performed during infancy while the cranial bones remain soft and malleable. The direction of normal cranial growth is altered through the application of external forces. In this study, three types of ACM from north‐central Peru (posterior flattening, bilobed and circumferential) were analysed using standard craniometric techniques. The aim was to determine the effects of these forms of ACM on craniofacial morphology, and the extent to which different types of ACM could be distinguished from one another and unmodified crania on the basis of these measurements. Significant differences between artificially modified and unmodified crania, and between different types of ACM, were demonstrated in cranial vault shape for all types. Significant differences in facial morphology were found only in the bilobed group compared with the unmodified crania. Canonical variates analysis (discriminant analysis) confirmed that major differences between modification types and unmodified crania were in measurements and angles of the cranial vault. While the results show some similarities to previous studies, they add to the variability in the patterns and extent of differences documented to date. It is suggested, based on these results and visual observations, that interpopulation variation in ACM within major modification categories may explain some of the variability in results between studies, an explanation which has previously received insufficient recognition but which remains to be tested since varied methodology between studies may also be a contributory factor. While previous studies have often sought to generalise about the effects of ACM, the examination of the differences between populations even within major ACM categories may offer new insight into cultural variation in modification techniques between populations and the nature of craniofacial development. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.