西欧中世纪乡村组织双重结构论

关于西欧中世纪庄园和村社组织研究,欧洲史学界先后出现两种倾向。不论漠视村社的存在还是重新发现村社而"撤离庄园",最终都不足以解释该时期繁复的历史现象,必须着眼于整体的、长时段的经济社会史,引入"庄园—村庄混合共同体"新概念,厘清二者之间的逻辑关系,建构西欧乡村组织双重结构的分析框架,方能揭示这一时期历史的本来面貌。在这一概念中,"庄园"和"村庄"是平行共存的两种成分,"混合共同体"是对这一组合的定性。封建制下的庄园与久已存在的村社,二者没有一体化,也没有完全各行其是,而是形成既协作又对抗的关系,推动乡村社会的发展。这种关系是乡村组织双重结构的基础,也是西欧乡村社会独特的历史特征。中世纪乡村共同体理念对欧洲影响深远,是一笔值得研究的历史遗产。     

西欧工业化的中世纪起源

西欧工业化研究不仅要研究工业化是如何完成的,还要关注工业化是如何起源与成长的。西欧工业化起源和成长的研究不仅有助于完整地还原和解释其历史过程,还能全面认识西欧工业化的转变特征与发展规律。西欧工业化起源于中世纪中期以来城乡工匠为市场而进行的生产活动。随着市场的扩大,工业走上技术和生产组织变革的工业化道路。中世纪中期以来以地方市场销售为目的的城乡个体工匠劳动获得前所未有的普及,磨面、呢布漂洗和金属冶炼等工业行业或工序不同程度地实现了机械化,以家内制毛纺织业为主的农村工业异军突起,这三个方面构成中世纪中晚期西欧工业化起源的主要内容,并一直盛行到工业革命。中世纪中晚期工业化的起源,与早期现代工业化的成长和晚期现代工业化的完成,都是西欧工业化过程必不可少的组成部分,也是西欧工业化研究的应有之义。     

论我国乡村旅游的特征

本文介绍乡村旅游的起源以及我国乡村旅游的历史演变、现代乡村率业的迅速发展,阐述我国乡村旅游的基本特征。即:乡村旅游目的地乡村性、产品的体验性、开发的扶贫性、资源的可持续性和时空的多变性。乡村旅游是发生在乡村地区,以乡村自然风光与乡村人文活动为吸引物,以农户为经营服务主体,以城市居民为主要目标市场,以满足旅游者观光、休闲、度假、学习、购物等各种需求为目的的旅游活动。乡村旅游的发展在西欧发达国家可以     

中世纪西欧工业生产中的妇女群体——纺纱女、酿酒女及其他

妇女是中世纪西欧工业生产中的特定群体,绝大多数人从事纺纱、酿酒和丝织等女性行业。她们通常在自己家中生产,将操持家务和赚取现金收入结合起来。少数女性协助丈夫或父亲经营其他行业的家庭作坊,寡妇可以继承亡夫的职业。也有些女孩在青少年阶段外出当学徒或充当女仆,少数已婚妇女独立从事工业,获得一定程度的独立性和自主性,个别人甚至成长为企业家。尽管中世纪晚期小城市和农村的毛纺织业中出现了女织工,但酿酒和丝绸等传统的中世纪女性行业逐渐让位于男性,城市工业为减少竞争也加大了限制力度,妇女工业生产的空间受到挤压。     

中世纪西欧城市与城乡关系的转型

中世纪欧洲城乡关系是对立关系,这是一种辩证的对立统一关系。从经济生活层面看,中世纪西欧城乡是共生和互动的:农村向城市供应资源,城市为农村提供工商服务。更重要的是,在这种共存与互动的静态表象下,城市实际上导引着城乡关系向近代方向的转变。城市最初以极具渗透力的商品货币关系,侵蚀着乡村的农本经济,解构了乡村的封建关系。而当城市因其一定的封建属性而束缚了自身发展时,城市要素又向农村转移,促使乡村工业兴旺,客观上强化了城市和城市资本对农村的支配力,并使乡村逐渐变成城市的依附者和从属物。在乡村工业基础上形成的新型城市,成为这些乡村工业区的控制中心,近代的乡村城市化模式由此诞生。     

中世纪晚期法国农奴制的瓦解

农奴制是中世纪西欧社会一项普遍的社会制度,曾广泛存在于西欧社会。法国的农奴制在中世纪西欧各国中更具有典型性。12世纪,由于垦荒运动的发展、地租形式的变化及法国农业经济的发展等原因,法国的农奴制开始走向瓦解。16世纪,法国农奴制瓦解速度放缓,其瓦解并不彻底。残余的农奴制也影响近代法国农业经济的发展。     

追寻西欧市场经济的中世纪起源——评徐浩著《中世纪西欧工商业研究》

徐浩著《中世纪西欧工商业研究》一书,旨在探讨中世纪中期开始西欧如何和为何逐步走上市场经济的道路。该书将社会转型问题从资本主义的起源转换为市场经济的兴起,在理论上充分吸收了经济学的历史经济学理论和经济社会史的商业化理论,着眼于中世纪西欧工商业史中一系列既独立又相互依托的重要专题,探讨中世纪西欧工商业存在和发展的特定历史环境、商业诸问题以及工业诸问题。该书的研究特色体现为对中世纪西欧作长时段的考察,关注普通民众的命运,研究方法上注重比较,主张对社会经济变化的原因作多视角的阐释。     

中英封建晚期乡村组织比较

在封建社会里,或说在农村人口占据绝大比例的前工业社会中,乡村组织是封建政治制度的一部分,亦是封建国家政治统治的重要基础。乡村政治组织,与标志生产方式性质的农业生产组织相类相从,皆是社会转型问题研究中不可忽视的课题。本拟对英国和中国封建晚期社会的乡村基层组织做一较系统的考察和比较,包括乡村公共事务管理,司法诉讼与教化以及乡村精英阶层分析等,以期表明中国和英国封建晚期社会不同的发展轨。     

浅析中世纪晚期西欧官吏阶层的产生

中世纪晚期西欧人身依附关系逐渐松弛,人们在城市生活中建立起以利益为核心的社会秩序。对构建公共权力的需要促使西欧各国开始通过议会走上建立统一的、中央集权国家的道路。官吏阶层的产生正是这一进程的产物。这些人不同于以往向领主个人效忠的封臣,他们接受过大学教育并领取薪俸,而且担负起由公共权力赋予的事务。官吏阶层在法律秩序的统一、国家公共职能的确立等方面发挥了重要作用,成为西欧社会结构变革的重要组成部分。     

英国早期乡村工业社会研究

英国工业革命中出现的乡村工业社会,是大工业在乡村发展的必然结果和乡村城市化过程的初始阶段。工业家是乡村工业社会的创建者和主宰,主要通过提供住房和管理公共卫生、控制社区的宗教和教育事业、掌控公共管理权力等3个方面来实现对乡村工业社会的控制和管理。开展关于英国早期乡村工业社会的研究,对于了解工业发展与社会转型之间的微妙关系,揭示工业企业家群体对社会事务的广泛渗透和控制,具有一定的启发意义。     

Alternative Development Strategies for Women in Rural China

Three major strategies for enhancing women's role in economic development in rural China are in evidence in the 1980s: (1) replacing male labour in agriculture, (2) employment in rural industry, and (3) ‘household’-based commodity production. The implications of each strategy for women's economic roles and for the structuring of gender in rural China are analysed. Particular attention is given to explicating unanticipated reasons for women's and Women's Federations' attraction to the third alternative. The concept of ‘strategy’ is examined in this context. The analysis is based on fieldwork data, including interviews and household surveys, collected in three villages in Shandong during the summer of 1986 and the winter of 1987–8.     

Transport Costs and Rural Development

Innovations that reduce costs of transport from rural locations may also reduce transport costs to rural areas. As transport costs fall, producers can afford to concentrate and achieve economies of scale. This paper explains an initially negative, but ultimately positive, relationship between reductions in transport costs and rural development. A two-region general equilibrium model with firm and worker spatial mobility highlights the firm and household location implications of costly transport-service use by both industry and agriculture in the context of scale economies and product differentiation. The computable general equilibrium model is initialized and verified with a bi-regional social accounting matrix and then used for simulations. Changes in relative transport costs are shown to affect relative regional wage rates, thus also determining the location of "production-cost-oriented" firms.     

Rural France in Europe: new challenges

This article examines the specificity of rural France in Europe and assesses the nature of the new challenges confronting it. Discussing the changes affecting the peasant world and French rural society, it aims to provide a balanced picture of the agricultural question by linking it to the issue of ruralité. Rural France has now become an object of debate not only for French society, but also for the future of European agriculture. The article also analyses to what extent France remains original in its position as the most ‘rural’ of the western European states by examining its relationship to its territoire and its integration into a global economy.     

近代山东农村手工业的外向型发展--以草辫、花边、发网业为例

清末民初。山东农村兴盛一时的草辫、花边、发网业是在资本主义入侵后,传统手工业遭到冲击和破坏,为适应国际市场的需求而发展起来的、产品专供出口的新兴手工业。通商口岸的开埠和地方政府、绅商的积极倡导、支持推动了它们的外向型发展。新兴手工业的商品化、专业化的发展。增加了农民家庭经济收入,发展了农村商品经济。活跃了农村市场,使农村手工业经济结构由传统封闭型向出口导向型转变。其贸易活动加强了城乡之间的互动联系,加速了山东沿海城市近代化的进程。     

全国第一个家庭林场与农村经济体制改革

党的十一届三中全会以后,福建省仙游县的农民李金耀创办了全国第一个上规模的家庭林场,尝试开发性农业经营。此举引起社会各界的关注,引发了一场全国性的大争论。通过争论,使人们解放了思想,对社会主义理论的基本内涵有了新的认识,突破了长期以来在社会主义经济建设中的教条主义,促进了人们思想观念的转变。中共中央、国务院根据李金耀和广大农民的伟大创举,调整了农村经济政策,变革了农业经营方式,加速了农村改革进程,使农村改革从种植业开始逐步向林业、水产业、畜牧业等多方面发展,促进了家庭承包经营向农业产业化发展,加速了中国农业的市场化进程。     

近50余年中国近代乡村手工业史研究述评

建国以来的50余年,中国经济史学界对近代乡村手工业史的研究取得了很大的进展,但是研究中存在的问题及其薄弱环节还很多,在一些主要问题上仍存在着分歧。今后的近代中国乡村手工业经济史研究必须秉持客观与理性的精神,将整体研究与区域研究、行业研究结合起来,同时加强量化分析,使中国近代经济史、近代乡村史的研究更加趋于精细和完整。     

The Effects of Inter-generational Support on the Mortality of Older People in Rural China

As inter-generational support is the primary source of support for the Chinese elderly in rural areas, such support is likely to affect their physical and psychological health. This paper investigates the effects of four types of inter-generational support on the mortality risk of the elderly in Anhui Province. Results showed that mortality risk was influenced significantly only by receiving household support. Financial support and personal care had no effect. Results also indicated that household and emotional support were effective in reducing mortality when delivered at closer proximity, suggesting that quality of support may be enhanced by co-residence and ready access to children. Conclusions about the health benefits of tangible forms of support need to be tempered by an understanding that poor health predisposes inter-generational co-residence, and that the quality of household assistance and emotional support may be sensitive to the geographic distance between older parents and their adult children in rural China.     

清代陕西农村畜养业的发展与牲畜产品输出

本文选取了清代陕西较重要的产业——农村畜养业作为研究对象,探讨了它的地域发展特征,牲畜市场的结构与分布,牲畜输出,初步匡算出清代陕西的年牲畜交易量。指出清代陕西农村畜养业具有普遍性的特点,遍在的农家耕畜需求以及作为交通工具役使,促进了农村畜养业的发展。另外,本地地近塞北,处于农牧分界地区,陕北部分州县半农半牧,故畜牧业发达。牲畜的交易与地方良种培育具有地缘优势,陕北"佳米驴",关中"秦川牛"、"关中驴"、"关中骡"在清代均形成地方品牌,是清代陕西对外输出的牲畜良种,在全国颇具知名度。这里每年牲畜交易十分频繁,牲畜市场发育最完善。清末陕西年牲畜交易量大体在20-40万头之间,牲畜税是地方商品中征收最多的税种,也构成陕西地方财政最重要的来源与补充。从这一点来说,它也是清代陕西地方经济发展有别于其它经济发达省区的一个重要特征。     

Factor Decomposition of Rural Income Inequalities in China

A Chinese geographer explores changes in inter-provincial rural income inequality in China since the late-1970s economic reforms by decomposing it into different component factors based on the Gini index (more specifically, into contributions by different income sources: wages, household operations, properties, and transfers). The influence of each factor on inequality changes is further decomposed into its structure effects and its real inequality effects. Quantitative analysis then makes it possible to determine the relative influence of each component on changes in rural provincial inequality over time.     

Gender and Household Economic Strategies in Rural Appalachia

In recent decades, many Appalachian households have experienced declining incomes due to the loss of traditional male jobs in the mining and manufacturing sectors. One response to this decline has been an increase in female employment in formal sector activities. Another response is homework, or the home-based production of goods and services for sale in the formal and informal sectors. In rural Appalachia, where formal jobs are often unavailable or inadequate to support a household, many women are engaging in homework as an economic strategy. Consequently, economic restructuring cannot be fully understood without analyzing household strategies and gender relations. This paper examines the intersection of gender, households, and economic restructuring as it relates to women's homework and employment shifts in rural Appalachia. Research for this paper entailed qualitative interviews with 50 West Virginia women who are engaged in the home-based production of goods and services. The study analyzes the variety of homework activities done by rural women, their contribution to household incomes, and the effect of these activities on gender relations and divisions of labor in the home. The research forwarded in this study advances a conceptual understanding of household economic strategies and has some practical applications for women and economic development in underdeveloped regions .