Investigation of past archaeological landscapes using remote sensing and GIS: a multi-method case study from Mount Ida,Crete

Spatial analysis in geoarchaeological applications can be improved by implementing a wider set of geoecological parameters, in order to provide more precise results. The aim of the paper is to show how geoscientific ground-truth and techniques can be adopted for detailed archaeological studies using a comprehensive set of environmental variables that might have influenced ancient settlement patterns. The project focuses on spatial patterns of archaeological sites as well as Bronze Age communication paths in Central Crete by applying a multi-method approach (surveying, remote sensing, DEM analysis, least-cost analysis, candidate site detection, predictive modelling, etc.). In contrast to conventional archaeological GIS applications this enhanced strategy offers promising prospects regarding landscape and settlement modelling.     

The potential of hyperspectral and multi-spectral imagery to enhance archaeological cropmark detection: a comparative study

Aerial photography has made the single most important contribution to our improved appreciation of the density, diversity and distribution of archaeological sites in Britain since World War Two. This is particularly the case for areas of intensive lowland agriculture where ploughed-out sites are known mainly from marks in the crops growing above them. However, reconnaissance for such cropmarks is not equally effective throughout the lowlands, because of the particular conditions of drier weather, well-drained soils and arable agriculture required before they become visible, and is highly unpredictable.     

Methods for the extraction of archaeological features from very high-resolution Ikonos-2 remote sensing imagery,Hisar (southwest Turkey)

Archaeological research in the territory of Sagalassos is a multidisciplinary project covering scientific disciplines traditionally linked to archaeology and also new technologies such as very high-resolution remote sensing with sufficient radiometric and spatial resolution (<2.5 m). This paper focuses on the evaluation of GIS-, pixel- and object-based techniques for automatic extraction of archaeological features from Ikonos-2 satellite imagery, which are then compared to a visual interpretation of ancient structures. The study was carried out on the unexcavated archaeological site of Hisar (southwest Turkey). Although all techniques are able to detect archaeological structures from Ikonos-2 imagery, none of them succeed in extracting features in a unique spectral class. Various landscape elements, including archaeological remains, can be automatically classified when their spectral characteristics are different. However, major difficulties arise when extracting and classifying archaeological features such as wall remnants, which are composed of the same material as the surrounding substrate. Additionally, archaeological structures do not have unique shape or colour characteristics, which can make the extraction more straightforward. In contrast to automatic extraction methods, a simple visual interpretation performs rather well. The methods presented in this paper can be applied with variable success to archaeological structures composed of the same material as the surrounding substrate, which is often the case.     

An 8000-year history of landscape,climate, and copper exploitation in the Middle East: the Wadi Faynan and the Wadi Dana National Reserve in southern Jordan

Investigations of geomorphology, geoarchaeology, pollen, palynofacies, and charcoal indicate the comparative scales and significance of palaeoenvironmental changes throughout the Holocene at the junction between the hyper-arid hot Wadi 'Arabah desert and the front of the Mediterranean-belt Mountains of Edom in southern Jordan through a series of climatic changes and episodes of intense mining and smelting of copper ores. Early Holocene alluviation followed the impact of Neolithic grazers but climate drove fluvial geomorphic change in the Late Holocene, with a major arid episode corresponding chronologically with the ‘Little Ice Age’ causing widespread alluviation. The harvesting of wood for charcoal may have been sufficiently intense and widespread to affect the capacity of intensively harvested tree species to respond to a period of greater precipitation deduced for the Roman–Byzantine period – a property that affects both taphonomic and biogeographical bases for the interpretation of palynological evidence from arid-lands with substantial industrial histories. Studies of palynofacies have provided a record of human and climatic causes of soil erosion, and the changing intensity of the use of fire over time. The patterns of vegetational, climatic change and geomorphic changes are set out for this area for the last 8000 years.     

Parameters in the use of pXRF for archaeological site prospection: a case study at the Reaume Fort Site,Central Minnesota

Field portable/hand-held x-ray fluorescence (pXRF) analyzers have been characterized as potentially useful for archaeological site prospection, but little has been published on the parameters of their use in this manner. The purpose of this study is to explore whether the variability of surface geochemistry as characterized with a pXRF analyzer corresponds with subsurface archaeological features at a site subsequently excavated, and what conditions influence the success of this endeavor, including feature depths, soil moisture, and sample processing. A 520 m² within-site area was systematically surveyed on a 2 m interval, within which several types of archaeological features were excavated (chimney bases, wall trenches, and a bonebed of faunal waste), taking readings in situ and collecting samples for ex situ testing (undried, dried but not powdered, and dried/powdered). The four different tests of each grid location, analyzed through univariate and multivariate tests, showed that the pXRF surface data does correspond with some types of subsurface features when those features are very shallow (within 5 cm of surface level) and are associated with clayey fills. Further, the data from the subsurface samples provides excellent distinction of feature fills from other sediments, regardless of sample preparation. In situ surface survey with pXRF analyzers may however be adequate for sites with a thorough baseline geochemical database.     

A GIS method for assessing the zone of human-environmental impact around archaeological sites: a test case from the Late Neolithic of Wadi Ziqlâb,Jordan

Assessing the impact of prehistoric sites on their local environment is difficult to accomplish with standard archaeological methods. Simulation modeling offers a solution to this issue, but it is first necessary to delimit a site catchment, or “zone of impact”, around archaeological sites in which to carry out human–environment interaction modeling. To that end, I have developed a new method for GIS-based catchment reconstruction and distilled it into a custom module (r.catchment) for GRASS GIS, which calculates catchments of a given area based on anisotropic travel costs from a point of origin. One method of applying this new module in exploratory catchment modeling is discussed using the pastoral economy of the Late Neolithic period in Wadi Ziqlâb, Northern Jordan as a test case. A model of Late Neolithic herding economy and ecology is constructed, which combines data from archaeology, phytogeography, range science, agronomy, and ethnohistory. Four sizes of pastoral catchments are then derived using r.catchment, and the herd ecology model is used to estimate the stocking-rate (carrying capacity) of mixed goat and sheep herds for each catchment. The human populations these herd numbers could support (between 3 and 630 people in the Wadi) are then compared with human population estimates derived from household architectural analyses (between 18 and 54 people in the Wadi) to determine the most probable catchment configurations. The results indicate that the most probable zone of impact around the known Late Neolithic sites in Wadi Ziqlâb was somewhere between 9 and 20 square kilometers, delineated by 3 and 4.5 km pasture radii respectively.     

Paleo-parasitological study on the soils collected from archaeological sites in old district of Seoul City

A paleo-parasitological study was performed on soil samples from archaeological sites in the old district of Seoul Metropolitan City (Old Seoul City) where the capital of the Joseon Kingdom was constructed about 600 years ago. The sampling sites were the original locations of the Royal Palace Wall, Yukjo Street and the Royal Arsenal. Microscopic examinations showed that parasite eggs of Clonorchis sinensis, Diphyllobothrium latum, Ascaris sp. and Trichuris sp. remained in the soil strata, which were estimated to represent the 14th-19th centuries. We suspect that the medieval citizens of Old Seoul City, numbering around 200,000, might have been made vulnerable to parasite infection by a combination of bad hygiene, inadequate sewer system and seasonal flooding.     

Correlating archaeological and palaeoenvironmental records using a Bayesian approach: a case study from Sutton Common,South Yorkshire,England

This paper presents a case study aimed at correlating archaeological ‘events’ (obtained from radiocarbon measurements and dendrochronology) from the site of Sutton Common with a radiocarbon-dated pollen sequence obtained from a palaeochannel deposit adjacent to the area of the main archaeological activity. It demonstrates the use of a Bayesian approach to quantifying whether the timing of palynological ‘events’ interpreted as reflecting anthropogenic impacts are likely to be associated with archaeological ‘events’. The results suggest that Bronze Age activity in the form of a mortuary enclosure and associated cremation burials are probably not contemporary with the palynological evidence for disturbance to the oak–hazel woodland in this period. Subsequent evidence for local woodland clearance and agriculture is estimated to precede the construction of the large Iron Age enclosure in 372 BC, with increases in ‘anthropogenic indicators’ following this ‘event’. The construction of the site does not appear to have had a pronounced impact on the local vegetation, with hazel the only woody taxon to show clear reductions. Despite the use of a substantial number of oak timbers in the enclosure palisade, percentages of oak remain remarkably stable. Later farming activity on the site probably post-dates the end of activity in the enclosures. The value of the methodology is discussed in relation to quantifiable and robust correlations of archaeological and palaeoenvironmental narratives of landscape and human activity.     

Exploring preferences and non-use values for hidden archaeological artefacts: a case from Denmark

This paper presents a choice experiment study of a proposed wetland restoration project which aims to preserve archaeological artefacts from Stone Age villages which are presently buried within the topsoil. Wetland restoration can avoid destruction of the artefacts due to agricultural cultivation and drainage, and in addition improve biological diversity and recreational opportunities. The results indicate that even though the artefacts are not visible or usable for the population of today, but may contain information and potential value for future generations, the strongest preferences displayed is for ensuring permanent protection of archaeological artefacts, rather than biological diversity and recreational opportunities. The results are discussed in relation to the Prospect Theory: people value a loss of cultural heritage higher than a gain of new cultural goods or services. This insight is of general interest to cultural economics and cultural policy, especially with respect to heritage protection.     

Recovery of DNA from archaeological insect remains: first results,problems and potential

We report the recovery of short fragments of PCR amplifiable ancient DNA from exoskeletal fragments of the grain weevil Sitophilus granarius (L.) extracted from Roman and medieval deposits in Northern England. If DNA preservation in archaeological insect remains is widespread then many applications in the spheres of evolutionary studies and archaeology can be conceived, some of which are outlined.     

Combined application of pansharpening and enhancement methods to improve archaeological cropmark visibility and identification in QuickBird imagery: two case studies from Apulia,Southern Italy

Launch of Very High Resolution (VHR) satellite sensors meant a significant evolution for Remote Sensing archaeological applications since data with high spatial resolution may be used to identify signals related to buried archaeological remains (e.g. cropmarks, soilmarks, dampmarks) in very extended territories. The aim of this work is to develop a suitable image processing workflow to improve the cropmark visibility in the VHR satellite images. The workflow implemented consists of two steps: first the panchromatic and multispectral images have been pansharpened in order to merge the two images, then some Enhancement methods have been applied on the pansharpened image. As a result of the several tested pansharpening techniques, the Principal Component Resolution Merge yields images of very good quality useful not only for visualization but also as input for further processing. Among the different enhancement methods taken into consideration, the Spatial Enhancement, carried out by applying the Wallis Adaptive filter further improve the visibility and recognition of the archaeological signals.     

Multiple assessments of local properties,production, and performance in metal objects: an experimental case study from Petra,Jordan

This object-specific case study focuses on cupreous artifacts excavated from the Great Temple complex of Petra, Jordan to demonstrate how the use of compositional X-ray analyses alongside two experimental applications (ImageJ software and nanoindentation) have the potential to generate different and otherwise unobtainable information about archaeological metals. The study highlights the value of using multiple techniques as a means of resolving the ambiguities that tend to arise from interpretations of single-sited measurements on objects and from single-instrumental analyses during studies of production processes and consequent material performance. Employing different techniques on multiple localities within a sample permits the gathering of precise information about the behavior of and interrelationships between variables that affect the objects’ fabrication and use, particularly composition, structure, and hardness properties. The resulting data are interpreted in association with contextual archaeological information from Petra to consider the use-life and potential significance of these objects.     

Assessing the effects of geomorphological processes on archaeological densities: a GIS case study on Zakynthos Island,Greece

While geomorphological processes are considered key factors in the distribution of archaeological surface finds, few studies have attempted to quantify the relationship between artefact dispersal and erosional/depositional patterns. This paper compares Unit Stream Power Erosion Deposition model (USPED) and Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation (RUSLE) and integrates the results in the archaeological finds’ density map of Zakynthos Archaeological Project. The study area (Palaiokastro), with artefacts dated from middle Paleolithic to medieval times, includes a steep terrain with a surrounding plain area, where the downslope erosion has considerably modified the distribution of archaeological remains. Through this study, it is possible to identify relationships between high artefact densities and stable/non-eroded surfaces, and on the other hand, low densities and eroded surfaces. However, the results indicate a degree of spatial variability, which modifies the predicted relationship. The consideration of the effects of these temporal and spatial patterns is crucial for developing effective sampling methods and accurately interpreting the archaeological record.     

Cartography of the archaeological surveys taken from an Ikonos stereo-pair: a case study of the territory of Hierapolis in Phrygia (Turkey)

The paper analyses methods and issues connected with the elaboration of Ikonos stereo high-resolution satellite images to create a large-scale cartography for archaeological research. This methodology has been used on an area of the ancient territory of Hierapolis in Phrygia (Turkey), where archaeological surveys, developed by the Italian Archaeological Mission, are in progress. In particular, the study area is situated between the modern villages of Yeniköy and Küçükdereköy, for which neither cartographies suitable for ground surveys nor aerophotogrammetrical covers were available. In this area there are a lot of archaeological remains; in particular, a large Hellenistic and Roman settlement and its necropolises, and also an old Turkish settlement, now destroyed. An Ikonos image was ortho-rectified to obtain a space-map of the entire area. It was used to extract vectorial thematic elements (modern topography, hydrology, archaeological remains and traces, etc.) for the production of maps for archaeological research in the tolerances of a 1:10,000 scale.     

Remote sensing applications and archaeological research in the Northern Lagoon of Venice: the case of the lost settlement of Constanciacus

“Vicus Constanciacus” is a project for the recovery, protection and evaluation of the historical and archaeological heritage of Constanciacus, an ancient small group of islands in the Northern Lagoon of Venice, of which currently just two emerged strips survive, namely: the abandoned islands of Sant’Ariano and La Cura. Exploring the area lying between the mainland and the lagoon represents an important opportunity for reconstructing the history of Venice before the well known medieval city and market arose. Through survey and excavations of the Constanciacus area, the project aims to shed new light on early patterns of occupation in the Northern Venetian Lagoon; to explore the communication network between the mainland and the sea; and to examine the evolution of settlements along the commercial routes of the Lagoon through time.     

From pedologic indications to archaeological reconstruction: deciphering land use in the Islamic period in the Baida district (north-western Sicily)

The aim of this work was to detect imprints on soil properties from former Islamic land use (9th to 11th century) using a multi-method, soil-chemical approach. Four soil profiles (with buried horizons) found in the vicinities of former Islamic settlements in Sicily were analysed for phosphorus (total, organic and inorganic), nitrogen (total, NO₃⁻ and NH₄⁺), carbon compounds (δ¹³C, lipids, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) and functional groups), physical and chemical C-fractions and the state of soil weathering. Two soil profiles contained ceramic sherds from the Islamic period. Inorganic nitrogen forms, phosphorous and the PAH content indicated strong impacts from traditional agriculture and/or burning. Radiocarbon dating of soil organic carbon (SOC) fractions from buried horizons showed that distinct changes must have occurred during the Islamic epoch. The isotopic composition of SOC indicated that land use was probably different in earlier times. C₄ plant cultivation was expected but surprisingly lipid analyses did not confirm this. A high amount of aliphates and low C/N ratio indicated a good, long-term SOC stabilisation under the native conditions combined with Islamic land use. The irrigation of the soils probably increased the production of weakly-crystalline Fe forms that helped to stabilise SOC.     

The local and global dimensions of metalliferous pollution derived from a reconstruction of an eight thousand year record of copper smelting and mining at a desert-mountain frontier in southern Jordan

This paper establishes an eight thousand year history of anthropogenic metal pollution at one of the oldest, most important and longest sustained sites of the extraction and smelting of copper ores in the Old World: the Faynan Orefield in Jordan, which is located between the hyper-arid southern desert and the front of the wetter Mountains of Edom. The modern land surface is shown, in significant part, to be a complex palimpsest of archaeological sites, metal pollution of various ages and ore processing deposits. Quantitative and qualitative observations of the storage and cycling of heavy metals through the local natural and domestic systems have produced a body of information on processes with which the past has been interpreted. Heavy metal concentrations in semi-continuous sedimentary bodies indicate that over the last 1500 years, metals were removed by natural processes at a comparatively slow rate given the scale of the original anthropogenic metal burden: the proportions of lead with respect to copper have increased as the overall metal burden has been lowered. Distinctive anthropogenic metal-pollution signatures have been detected in ash- and charcoal-rich deposits that were discarded onto the banks of a perennial stream in the late Neolithic. At present, the nature of the human activities that might have produced these pollution signatures is unknown. Substantial metal pollution from industrial-scale smelting activity was present from the Early Bronze Age. The intensity of heavy metal pollution produced in Classical Times locally exceeded that recorded at major European copper smelting centres in the nineteenth century A.D. The pollution evidence indicates that intensive copper smelting at the immediate area took place until approximately the end of the Byzantine period; with the exception of one further minor episode of smelting radiocarbon dated to cal. BP 530–330. An observed partial, but perhaps significant, parallelism is also noted between this local record and the records of the metal burdens of the northern hemisphere determined at mire or ice-sheet sites at high-altitudes or high-latitudes.The paper discusses the extent to which this parallelism might be a geochemical indicator of the actual existence of “economic systems” of a geographical scope and scale to have both exercised substantial “pull” upon the resources of such isolated and difficult locations at the Wadi Faynan, and to have generated sufficient overall metal pollution to have materially altered the chemistry of the global atmosphere. The comparative absence of quantitative information upon the nature, spatial scale and impacts of human, industrial and natural processes affecting metal-pollution in other metal-rich arid lands provides a significant impediment to such approaches that seek to research “locally and think globally”.     

Mapping the risk of damage from tree roots for the conservation of archaeological sites: the case of the Domus Aurea,Rome

Abstract

Damage caused by tree root growth to archaeological monuments buried underground, over the course of centuries, has been frequently reported in the city of Rome. The Domus Aurea, Nero's Imperial residence, now lies under the Horti Traianei (Trajan's Park) on the Oppian hill. These gardens, planted at the beginning of the last century, are located only 3–4m above the surviving archaeological structures. In some cases roots have damaged the underlying vaults, sometimes creating serious structural problems. Results of the study show that a variety of species with strong root systems growing for many metres laterally, and to depths of several metres, are present. Identification of the plants responsible for the damage has been achieved through a study of the anatomy of their wood. A real and potential assessment of the risk posed by tree roots to the archaeological structures has been attempted. The data collected will contribute to evaluating the risk to monuments under similar conditions and will also help to avoid errors made in managing the plant cover of archaeological sites     

Potential of satellite based sensors for studying distribution of archaeological sites along palaeo channels: Harappan sites a case study

A large number of remote sensing based studies have shown evidence of a prominent river system, which has become buried under sand cover of Thar Desert sometime during late Holocene. This major river has been identified as Sarasvati, a legendary river mentioned in ancient Indian texts. This region is rich with archaeological sites of Harappan civilization (2500–500 BC). The present study has utilised digital image processing and enhancements techniques on multisensor satellite data followed by field investigations to reconfirm known traces and detect hitherto unknown traces of palaeochannels of Sarasvati river through parts of Indus alluvial plain in Thar desert. Potentials of IRS-P4 OCM (Primarily an Ocean Color Sensor, with eight narrow spectral channels, high radiometric resolution of 12 bits and large swath of 1420 m) could be exploited for the first time to detect hitherto unknown traces of palaeochannels of Sarasvati river through sand dune topography of Thar desert in parts of Western Rajasthan in India and adjoining parts of Pakistan by applying Principal Component Analysis technique. Pattern of palaochannels indicate westward migration of the Sarasvati river in parts of Indus alluvial plain. Database of more than 1000 archaeological sites compiled from various published sources, prepared in GIS environment could be utilised to understand their relationship with identified courses of the Sarasvati palaeochannels. Through this study it was found that there is a large spread of Mature Harappan (2200–1700 BC) sites along the palaeochannel of the Sarasvati and its tributaries in north-west India, but late Harappan (1700–1500 BC) sites are limited to further west in adjoining regions of Pakistan indicating that the shift of cluster of settlements have followed the pattern of river migration towards west. Digital terrain modelling by superimposing archaeological sites on SRTM DEM along with draped satellite data (Resourcesat-1 AWiFS and IRS-1D LISS-III) has helped in identifying geomorphological guides for archaeological investigations such as presence of relict natural levees seen as raised mounds and coincidence of known archaeological sites over them. It is suggested that other relict natural levees or raised mounds adjoining the identified palaochannel courses may be taken up for further archaeological exploration.