Allochthonous red pigments used in burial practices at the Copper Age site of Valencina de la Concepción (Sevilla,Spain): characterisation and social dimension

The use of red pigments linked to burial practices is widely documented in the Iberian prehistoric record and very often it has been traditionally interpreted as a ritual practice entailing the utilisation of local raw materials (iron oxides). Some research works, nevertheless, have also detected the use of red pigments which can only be interpreted as allochthonous. The red pigments spread over a single inhumation in a monumental Megalithic tomb surrounding Valencina de la Concepción Copper Age settlement was studied by means of X-ray diffraction, field emission scanning electron microscopy with energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy, X-ray microfluorescence, micro-Raman and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopies. This approach allowed characterising the red pigments as cinnabar, mixed with tiny amounts of iron oxides. The presence of cinnabar, a product that was necessarily imported, in a context of an exceptional set of grave goods, suggests that the use of cinnabar was linked not only to ritual but also to practices related to the display of social status.     

Archaeometric investigation of Roman tesserae from Herculaneum (Italy) by the combined use of complementary micro-destructive analytical techniques

Vitreous tesserae from two mosaics in Herculaneum (Italy) dating from the 1st century AD have been investigated in order to gather information on Imperial Age opaque glass. The combined use of complementary micro-destructive analytical techniques, namely optical microscopy (OM), scanning electron microscopy (SEM) with energy dispersive spectrometry (EDS), inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (ICP-MS), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), and X-ray powder diffraction (XRPD) allowed to define the nature of formers, fluxes, chromophores and opacifying compounds and to determine the type of raw materials employed for their introduction. The results confirmed the high technological level of Imperial Age glassmakers and clarified some details of the production processes. Experimental data have been obtained concerning formation of antimony-based opacifiers. The presence of tin-containing Ca- and Pb-antimonates has been ascertained in various green, yellow and turquoise tesserae. Moreover, unusual divergences from the established Roman age ‘low magnesia–low potash’ (LMLK) glass composition have been found for some red and green samples.     

Anthropological and physicochemical investigation of the burnt remains of Tomb IX in the ‘Sa Figu’ hypogeal necropolis (Sassari,Italy) – Early Bronze Age

Excavations carried out in Tomb IX of the hypogeic necropolis of ‘Sa Figu’, near the village of Ittiri (Sassari, Italy), supplied burnt human bone remains and pottery unambiguously referred to the Early Bronze Age (characterised by the local culture of ‘Bonnannaro’). Besides the anthropological study, we have investigated and evaluated the possibility of a funerary cremation practice in Sardinian pre‐history, a subject that has previously not been considered from a scientific point of view. Making use of a calibration procedure based on X‐ray diffraction (XRD) line‐broadening analysis, related to the microstructural properties, it was possible to estimate the combustion temperature to which the fragmented bones were subjected. It was found that the studied bones reached temperatures varying from 400°C up to a maximum of 850°C. This spread of values suggested inhomogeneous combustion of the bones, which seems compatible with funerary cremation practices. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

CHARACTERIZATION OF CORAL RED SLIPS ON GREEK ATTIC POTTERY*

Samples of red and black gloss from Greek Attic pottery of the late sixth to fifth centuries bc were examined using scanning electron microscopy (SEM and FIB/STEM). The focus of the study was the chemical and microstructural characterization of the red gloss that was first produced during this period. Two groupings of red gloss were revealed. One red was found to be compositionally similar to the black glosses (labelled ‘LCM coral red’). The other red showed more significant chemical differences, such as higher calcium and magnesium, in comparison to the black (labelled ‘HCM coral red’). The existence of two chemically distinct reds—otherwise identical in colour and texture—suggests that there was more than one source of clay available to the Attic potters for producing red.     

A TECHNOLOGICAL STUDY OF CHINESE PORCELAIN OF THE YUAN DYNASTY

Optical and scanning electron microscopy, electron microprobe analysis and X-ray diffraction are used to determine the composition and microstructure of the bodies and glazes of Chinese porcelain of the Yuan dynasty from Jingdezhen, as well as samples of porcelain-stone and glaze-stone from the same region. The original mineralogical compositions of the porcelain bodies and glazes are estimated. The results indicate that the yingqing porcelain bodies were made using a kaolinised porcelain-stone whereas the underglaze blue porcelain bodies were prepared by the addition of kaolin to a kaolinite-free porcelain-stone. In both cases, the glazes were made by mixing ‘glaze-ash’ (i.e. lime) with the porcelain stone used to make the bodies.     

A long-distance copper alloy trade to the North Eastern Baltic during the late pre-Roman and Roman Iron Age (250 BCE–450 CE) explored with lead isotope MC-ICP-MS

The North Eastern Baltic has no copper resources of its own, meaning that Cu alloy was imported either as raw material or as finished objects. The north-eastern coastline of Estonia during the late pre-Roman and Roman Iron Age was connected to the south by sea to the long-distance ‘amber’ trade route and to the east by Russian river systems. This study quantitatively assesses the direction of the Cu alloy supply in the region before and after brass enters circulation at the beginning of the Roman Iron Age. After an initial portable X-ray fluorescence (pXRF) survey, 18 objects were chosen for Pb isotope analysis. This isotope analysis resolved a group of nine brass artefacts from the Roman Iron Age amongst a ‘melting pot’ of other Cu alloys. The similarity between the isotope ratios found in the Roman world suggests the presence of the same ‘melting pot’ in the North Eastern Baltic, possibly created by a large amount of Roman Cu alloy being traded north. No evidence for Cu alloy from Scandinavia or the Ural Mountains could be found. The hypothesis from this small study is that the Cu alloy entering Estonia was dominated by metal from Southern Europe from the late pre-Roman Iron Age and the Roman period.     

Physicochemical characterization and provenance of colouring materials from Akrotiri-Thera in relation to their archaeological context and application

An assemblage of approximately 500 colouring materials and objects related to their use, found in different contexts and forms at Akrotiri, Thera, was recently investigated. The items date to the Early, Middle and Late Cycladic Bronze Age (c. 3000?C1600 bc) and include materials or pigments found in their natural state, in specifically made forms or inside vessels. Some of the contexts do not provide any indication of the pigments?? use, storage, trade or application. Among the investigated materials, which include red and yellow ochres and blue riebeckite, are those that can be associated with pigments that were widely used in the past in wall paintings or to decorate pottery. There is also evidence for the selective use of purple pigments, which were derived from shellfish, in wall paintings. However, there are other raw colouring materials, such as lead pigments that have not been previously known to have been used in wall paintings or in any other applications during the prehistoric period in the Aegean. A thorough macro- and microscopic visual examination of the quality and morphology of these items enabled the identification of physical features (colour, homogeneity, grain size and shape) that indicate their nature or degree of processing. To identify the mineral composition of the pigments and to investigate their provenance from a geological perspective, quantitative X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis was conducted. For those samples requiring additional information on their composition and for the refining or confirming of the XRD data, scanning electron microscopy combined with energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (SEM-EDX), micro-Raman and Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopies were performed. This work is part of a larger project, supported by Institute for Aegean Prehistory, that aims to clarify major archaeological queries that are not restricted to the identification of the nature, composition and provenance of the colouring materials but extend to aspects of their selection, preparation and application techniques used during the Early to the Late Bronze Age.     

重庆大足石刻舒成岩砂岩本体表面风化产物研究

针对重庆大足舒成岩摩崖造像和岩体富集灰尘部位出现的粉化伴随着层状剥落现象,采用X-射线衍射仪(XRD)、X-射线荧光光谱仪(XRF)、傅里叶变换红外光谱仪(FTIR)、环境扫描电子显微镜(SEM)和X-射线光电子谱(XPS)对岩石、岩体风化产物与灰尘样品进行了组成结构表征研究。研究发现灰尘和有害气体干沉降过程中酸性物质能够导致砂岩中钙质胶结物发生溶解,伴随着各种盐类结晶应力,导致岩石表层发生风化。研究成果为西南地区石窟寺保护提供了重要参考数据。     

陕西蓝田水陆庵彩绘泥塑颜料分析研究

水陆庵位于陕西蓝田王顺山下,庵内现存三百余平方米精美绝伦的明代彩绘泥塑,是我国泥塑保存最多、最完整的明代彩绘泥塑群之一。为明确水陆庵彩绘泥塑的颜料使用情况,采用光学显微镜、X射线衍射仪、显微红外光谱仪、扫描电镜-能谱仪和显微拉曼光谱仪对颜料样品进行科学分析。结果表明,除中隔壁背面重妆区域的蓝色颜料主要成分是普鲁士蓝之外,水陆庵彩塑使用的颜料大多为矿物颜料,包括铅丹、朱砂、铁红、氯铜矿、雌黄和云母等。研究结果将为水陆庵后续保护修复提供科学依据,并为丰富关中地区明代彩绘泥塑颜料类型补充科学信息。     

Painted plaster from Bronze Age Thebes, Boeotia (Greece): a technological study

From the rather difficult excavations that have taken place in Thebes since the beginning of the last century, many fragmentary but often well-preserved paintings on plaster have been unearthed. These belong to several contexts and periods: House of Kadmos (Late Helladic IIIA), Treasury Room (Late Helladic IIIB1) and Oikopedon Spourli (Late Helladic III). Their iconography, style and technology fit well with other paintings from the Late Bronze Age sites found in the vicinity of Thebes (e.g. Gla and Orchomenos). This paper presents a technological study of the Bronze Age painted plaster from Thebes, Greece. The paintings were investigated by means of X-ray diffraction; stereo, reflected light and scanning electron microscopy; some by laser-induced breakdown spectrometry and by micro-Raman spectroscopy, in order to identify the pigments and the composition of the plaster layers, and to determine the painting technique(s) that the artisans may have employed. The plaster layer onto which the paint layer was applied was often the only layer and consisted mainly of calcite, while a clay plaster formed the backing between the lime plaster coat and the actual wall surface. The pigments identified were: yellow ochre, haematite (red), cuprorivaite (Egyptian blue), indigo and possibly riebeckite for blue, charcoal (black), calcite (white), and a combination of black and red for purple. A detailed macroscopic study of the painted surface revealed several features, which indicated that the technique of al fresco painting was employed extensively, a technique already in use since the start of the Late Minoan I phase on Crete. A generally lower level of quality in the appearance of the later paintings (Treasury Room and Oikopedon Spourli) was also noted, but this was not reflected in the materials used or in their overall manipulation.     

陕西咸阳出土东汉陶器表面彩绘成分研究

为掌握陕西省咸阳市渭城区周陵镇费家村南两座东汉墓葬M17和M19出土15件陶器表面彩绘成分及保存现状,通过XRF,XRD,FTIR和SEM-EDS等分析仪器进行检测。经分析检测发现:M17出土6件陶器表面使用铅丹作为颜料,部分铅丹已转化为白色碳酸铅(PbCO_3)。M19出土陶器表面分别使用朱砂和铁红颜料,同时确定在部分器物表面使用了髹漆工艺。在M19出土的3件器物口沿处发现二氧化锡层,通过扫描电镜能谱分析和文献研究,确定其应为单质锡氧化而来,且使用锡汞齐方法镀锡,为进一步认识和理解这批器物提供了基础。     

Characterization and textural analysis of Middle Bronze Age Transdanubian inlaid wares of the Encrusted Pottery Culture,Hungary: a preliminary study

Inlaid ceramics belonging to the Encrusted Pottery Culture and dated to the Middle Bronze Age (2000–1500 BC) are highly distinctive vessels with complex decorative motifs found in large numbers in the Transdanubia region of Hungary. Despite this considerable corpus of material there has been little systematic investigation of the composition of the inlays. Micro-analysis of Transdanubian inlaid wares by X-ray diffraction (XRD), micro-Fourier transform infrared microscopy (FT-IR), and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) provides new compositional, structural and textural information on the inlays. In contrast to common statements in the literature regarding the materials used to make inlays, these new data show that the majority of inlays are composed of hydroxyapatite (bone) that was previously ashed, although some of the inlays are composed of calcium carbonate. Additional compositional and textural variation in the bone inlays suggests that bone material from different skeletal elements and/or of different age may have been used, and that contrasting recipes for inlay preparation were employed during fabrication. These results suggest that the production of inlaid vessels of the Encrusted Pottery Culture was more complex than has hitherto been thought.     

What’s Up Doc? Seventh Sons in Victorian and Edwardian Lancashire

Abstract

Folklorists have long acknowledged that seventh sons had a reputation as healers in England. It has not previously been appreciated that in the region around Blackburn, Lancashire, seventh sons were frequently given the Christian name ‘Doctor’ in Victorian and Edwardian times. This article examines seventh-son traditions there and their connection to healing by reconstituting families with sons named ‘Doctor’. The article finishes with two reflections on folklore transmission and folk beliefs in Lancashire in the nineteenth and early twentieth century.     

A POWER TO INTRIGUE? EXPLORING THE ‘TIMELESS’ QUALITIES OF THE SO‐CALLED ‘GROTESQUE’ IRON AGE TORC FROM SNETTISHAM,NORFOLK

Sometimes we come across objects that truly intrigue us. Not necessarily because they are great examples of art, or because they are made of precious materials, but because there is some other quality which captures our attention. One of these can be age. Just as age adds character to people’s faces, the patina of an object or visible signs of damage and use instils an object with a certain ‘charisma’ or ‘aura’. This paper examines in detail the so‐called grotesque torc, a neck‐ring dating to the Iron Age which has been extensively repaired. The repairs are crude and obvious, which gives the object its distinctive appearance. It is argued that these signs of age, inscribed onto the artefact through its life, imbued the torc with a timeless ‘anachronic’ quality: its visible age manifests a certain charisma or aura, helping facilitate a plural relationship with time.     

重庆钓鱼城遗址悬空卧佛彩绘颜料初步分析

钓鱼城悬空卧佛造像系创作于晚唐时期的一尊巨型石刻,具有极高的历史、艺术、科学、宗教价值,但造像保存现状较差,存在颜料脱落、酥碱粉化、起甲等病害,亟待保护修复。为了解悬空卧佛彩绘颜料层的成分与结构,采用金相显微镜、拉曼光谱、X射线荧光(XRF)、X射线衍射(XRD)、扫描电镜-能谱仪(SEM-EDS)等多种现代方法与技术对彩绘样品进行了分析。结果表明:所用红色颜料为铁红、铅丹;蓝色颜料为群青;绿色颜料为碱式氯化铜;青色颜料为墨绿砷铜矿;白色颜料为硫酸铅;局部有贴金。结果还表明,该造像历史上曾多次重绘。本研究成果以期填补钓鱼城悬空卧佛研究的空白,同时为修复工作的开展提供科学依据。     

THE TECHNOLOGY OF ‘GLAZED’ RESERVED SLIP WARE—A FINE CERAMIC OF THE HARAPPAN PERIOD*

‘Glazed’ Reserved Slip Ware (RSW) is a high‐quality glossy bichrome pottery of the Indus Valley civilization, and dates to the mature Harappan period (c. 2600–1900 bc ). Scanning electron microscopy with energy‐dispersive X‐ray analysis indicates that the surface coat on RSW is composed of a pale grey vitrified clay slip, which overlies a black slip with significantly higher iron oxide. Hence the term ‘sintered’ Reserved Slip Ware is to be preferred. X‐ray diffraction analysis indicates that both the pale and black slips contain hercynite, mullite and quartz, but observation by scanning electron microscopy shows that the black slips contain higher amounts of coarser‐grained hercynite. The elemental data suggest that different clays were used to make the bodies and the slips. However, key element ratios are very close in associated black and pale slips. The grey slip may have been produced by elutriation of the fine, iron oxide‐rich clay that was used to prepare the black slip. The pale grey slip was laid over the black and removed by combing to produce a bichrome effect, which evoked semi‐precious materials such as agate. RSW was a specialist product that required significantly higher input skill and resources than the majority of Harappan clay‐based ceramics. It is a further example of the range of sophisticated Harappan ceramic wares, which included faience, fired steatite and stoneware.     

RED PALAEOLITHIC PIGMENTS: NATURAL HEMATITE OR HEATED GOETHITE?*

Yellow goethite (α-FeOOH) and red hematite (α-Fe₂0₃) were used as pigments by Palaeolithic painters. When heated, goethite dehydrates and transforms to hematite Archaeologists wonder whether prehistoric people knew of this property and used it. We present a way to distinguish heated goethite from natural hematite. The methods used are X-ray diffraction and transmission electron microscopy. A double ‘signature’, namely selective broadening of diffraction reflections and porous nanostructure, is evidenced in heated goethite. Coupled with mineralogical associations, this allows us to establish a procedure to investigate the natural or artificial origin of hematite samples. Applied to the Palaeolithic site of Troubat, it reveals no difference between the Magdalenian and Azilian cultures concerning the heat-treatment of pigments; an area specializing in heat-treating pigments, may, nevertheless, have existed inside the cave, which would indicate that heating wax deliberate.     

Evidence of open-air late prehistoric occupation in the Trieste area (north-eastern Italy): dating, 3D clay plaster characterization and obsidian provenancing

Abundant clay burnt plaster remains and a few flaked tools, including an obsidian artefact, found on the ground surface not far from Trieste (north-eastern Italy) provide rare evidence of a possible prehistoric open-air occupation in the area. To confirm and detail their ancient origin, a plaster sample has been dated between 4000 and 2000 B.C. via thermoluminescence. Outer and inner structure of selected plaster samples has been characterized using several techniques, i.e. X-ray diffraction, scanning electron microscopy and X-ray computed micro-tomography, obtaining information about their production technology. The last technique has allowed to image and virtually extract vegetal remains and imprints. Their 3D morphological study has contributed to collect information about the ancient environment and has provided clues to define the plaster production season. The provenance of the obsidian artefact from Lipari Island, revealed by prompt gamma activation analysis, suggests that the finding site was part of long-distance connection systems and probably worked as intermediate point between the north-eastern Adriatic coastal areas and the inner Karst plateau.     

Beyond Iron Age ‘towns’: Examining oppida as examples of low‐density urbanism

The question of whether Late Iron Age oppida in Europe were truly ‘urban’ has dominated debate over these sites since the nineteenth century. Oppida have been surprisingly absent from comparative urban studies, however, despite increasingly nuanced perspectives on the nature and diversity of the urban phenomenon. In particular, Roland Fletcher's implication that oppida might represent part of a broader alternative form of low‐density urbanism has been largely overlooked, by Iron Age scholars and urbanism specialists alike. With the complex nature of many oppida now becoming increasingly apparent, I suggest it is a pertinent time to assess Fletcher's claim and examine whether oppida can be convincingly compared to low‐density urbanism elsewhere in the world and, if so, what implications this might have for understanding Iron Age societies. This paper argues that oppida do indeed display aspects of low‐density urbanism and that this is likely to be due to the negotiated nature of power in Iron Age societies.