A Vast Inland Empire and the Last Great West: remaking society, space and environment in early British Columbia

In the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, a new order was imposed on the land and inhabitants of present-day interior British Columbia. From one perspective this was a story of human progress and improvement – the advance of colonizing Europeans into lands that they considered underutilized and unproductive and that they sought, often successfully, to bring within the growing orbit of global trade and world capitalism. Yet for many people and creatures the story of resettlement was far from a story of progress. In relatively short order – less than a century – the grasslands of interior British Columbia were swept and transformed by many of the most powerful currents of western modernity. The results of this transformation were uneven and often deeply inequitable. By the late nineteenth century native peoples had been dispossessed and struggled to survive on small resource-poor Indian Reserves; a few corporate and family-owned cattle ranches controlled the best range leaving small-scale immigrant ranchers with more or less marginal land; and many types of grassland had been heavily overgrazed. This paper explores these darker sides of European resettlement in present-day interior British Columbia by emphasizing the role of ranching in colonial resettlement, by describing the stratified rural society that ranching, in part, produced, and by revealing the different ways that cattle and ranches interacted with natural and economic processes to remake an environment.     

Who Built the Scythian and Thracian Royal and Elite Tombs?

This paper discusses the complex and controversial problems of Scythian and Thracian royal and élite tombs of the fifth/fourth centuries BC. The similarities beween them are too great to be explained simply as coincidence. Although the inspiration for the type of chamber tomb might have been local, the architecture, painting and many other features show that Ionian Greeks were constructing them for the local élite. This conclusion is strongly supported by the close similarities between these tombs and those of the rulers and élite of the Bosporan Kingdom in the Kerch and Taman Peninsulas of a similar date.     

An English approach to the American frontier

Studies of frontier migration in the American west are hampered by lack of data because few records contain evidence of reasons for migrating or evidence of decisions taken by individual migrants or groups of migrants. An extensive collection of letters from two English brothers who, in 1882, migrated to an English farm colony in north-west Iowa, then moved into horse-raising in Wyoming, then returned to Iowa, and later went back to Wyoming, provides an unusually illuminating case study in frontier migration. The letters reveal reasons for the frequent moves in the west over a seventeen-year period ending with the brothers' successful establishment as sheep ranchers in Wyoming. They show how each shift was conditioned by their previous experience of economic difficulties and by their persistent reliance upon contacts in England.     

FROM THE END OF ROMAN BRITAIN TO THE'CELTIC WEST'

Summary. This paper suggests that the end of Roman Britain would have been an event noticeable, even to the peasant labouring in his fields, by a sudden collapse in the trading economy. It suggests that this was, perhaps, triggered by a 'tax revolt'amongst the élite. It then seeks to trace possible lines of continuity and transformations in various key features of Romano-British life in the fifth to seventh centuries. Many of the transformations are seen as resulting from the loss of traded goods by the élite with which to impress clients.     

A Persianizing Cup from Lydia

The kantharoid-cup examined here may serve as an examplar of the various currents which are evident in the pottery producing traditions of archaic Lydia. Although our knowledge of Lydian pottery is still in great need of enrichment features derived from other regions are apparent in finds made in the Sardis area, and beyond. The kantharoid cup is clearly decorated in a manner firmly anchored in archaic Lydian practice, but ultimately derived from an East Greek source. Its shape, however, is borrowed from eastern traditions, specially – as realia and iconographic representations show – from the Achaemenid repertoire. It is in this context, as an item of emulation of élite practice, that the adoption of this particular shape in Lydia is best understood.     

Missionization and Economic Change in the Pimería Alta: The Zooarchaeology of San Agustín de Tucson

Spanish missions were important support bases for colonization; Native American labor provided both food and commodities to support regional colonial expansion. Zooarchaeological remains from Mission San Agustín, located in present-day southern Arizona, offer a unique perspective on livestock use at missions, and engagement with regional economic networks through secondary animal products. Despite decades of resistance to livestock, the O’odham became the primary labor force in an economic system based on livestock ranching, particularly of cattle. The transition to cattle ranching was likely influenced by a number of factors including pressure from missionaries, population growth, and, perhaps most importantly, the regional demand for secondary livestock commodities such as hide and tallow.     

Pedigree and productivity in the British and North American cattle kingdoms before 1930

The origin of the concepts of breed and pedigree in cattle in late eighteenth-century Britain, and the circumstances of their translation to north America are examined. Pedigree had a particular value to north American importers and was more widely adopted in both Britain and America for that reason. However, from the outset, competitive pressures developed which owed little to performance as measured in beef or milk. The descendants of early importations of improved but unpedigreed Shorthorn cattle were stigmatized as «unfashionable» while other bloodlines, particularly those descended from the stock of British breeder Thomas Bates, gained the attention and the premiums associated with fashion. The «fancy» thus attracted both north American and British enthusiasts, but with different results. As in Britain, fashionable pedigrees were acquired as positional, non-material goods within a general environment of speculative excess, though with less serious consequences for the overall performance of north American livestock agriculture. There appear to have been two reasons for this. First, north America had no equivalent to the British landlord–tenant system, which encouraged the wider dissemination to the productive sector of costly cattle with indifferent productivity credentials. Second, and more important, in north America the «fancy» and those who promoted it acted as a stimulus to a different kind of boosterism, which promoted competing breeds of cattle on the basis of productivity. Though breed boosters had less success in the dairy than in the beef sector, the net outcome was the more constructive application of pedigree to productivity in north America than in Britain.     

WEALTH AND STATUS IN IRON AGE KNOSSOS

Summary.   Knossos Tekke tomb 2 is one of the richest tombs in the Iron Age Aegean, renowned for its deposits of gold. The tomb is widely attributed to a family of goldsmiths, who migrated to Knossos from the Near East. This article, however, questions this attribution. An alternative interpretation is pursued through surveys of the distribution of some luxury materials, amply represented in the Tekke tomb, in all known Knossian tombs. By setting the Tekke find against the large corpus of Knossian burial material, I identify the Tekke occupants as members of a local élite. This group is shown to have had privileged access to the products of a goldsmith's workshop, as well as to the sources of some lavish, mostly imported, raw materials, and to have regulated their distribution within Knossian society during the eighth century. The means through which the Tekke élite claimed and defended their wealth and status are assessed and their possible Late Bronze Age pedigree is conjectured.     

'The Return of Ulysses': Gladstone, Liberalism and Late Victorian Politics

Gladstone, Whiggery and the Liberal Party, 1874–1886 . By T. A.Jenkins. Oxford: Clarendon Press. 1988. vi, 328 pp. £32.50.
The Gladstonian Turn of Mind: Essays Presented to J. B. Conacher . Edited by Bruce L. Kinzer. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. 1985. xv, 294 pp. £35.00.
Gladstone, Home Rule and the Ulster Question, 1882–93 . By James Loughlin. Dublin: Gill and Macmillan. 1986. 369 pp. No price given.
Parliamentary Politics and the Home Rule Crisis: The British House of Commons in 1886 . By W. C. Lubenow. Oxford: Clarendon Press. 1988. vii, 389 pp. £37.50.
The Gladstone Diaries with Cabinet Minutes and Prime Ministerial Correspondence, Volume IX, January 1875-December 1880 . Edited by H. C. G. Matthew. Oxford: Clarendon Press. 1986. xcvii, 714 pp. £55.00.
Parnell and the First Home Rule Episode, 1884–87 . By Alan O'Day. Dublin: Gill and Macmillan. 1986. x, 314 pp. £25.00.     

Reviews

British Warship Losses in the Age of Sail 1650–1859, DAVID J. HEPPER
'De Zeehond', een Groninger Tjalk Gebouwd in 1878, Vergaan in 1886 (in Dutch with an English summary) R. OOSTING and K. VLIERMAN
Archeologia Subacquea, Studi, Ricerche e Documenti, 1 PIER0 GIANFROTTA and PAOLA PELAGATTI (Eds)
I Vikingernes Kelvand (in Danish) SOREN VADSTRUP
Medieval Boat and Ship Timbers from Dublin, SEAN MCGRAIL
Tall Ships, Two Rivers, A. OSLER and A. BARROW
The Wreck Diver's Guide to Sailing Ship Artifacts of the 19th Century, DAVID LEIGH STONE
Sail's Last Century-The Merchant Sailing Ship 1830–1930 (no 8 in Conway's 'History of the BASIL GREENHILL Ship' series)
The History of the French Frigate 1650–1850 JEAN BOUDRIOT, trans. DAVID H. ROBERTS
The first Frigates: Nine-Pounder and Twelve-Pounder Frigates 1748–1815 ROBERT GARDINER
Mersey Flats and Flatmen MICHAEL STAMMERS
Shipwrecks of the Isles of Scilly, RICHARD LARN     

Patriotism,Self-Interest and the ‘Empire Effect’: Britishness and British Decisions to Invest in Canada, 1867–1914

This paper builds on the growing body of literature on the British World, which has shown that people in the dominions had a strong British identity and their claims to Britishness were recognised by people in the British Isles. It attempts to gauge the extent to which this British World identity influenced the global allocation of British capital. Much of the existing literature on British investment in the dominions dismisses the possibility that the pattern in Britain's capital exports was significantly affected by imperial patriotism. This article will suggest that imperial sentiment did indeed influence the destination of British capital exports. Imperialist sentiment influenced the legal and political institutions of the dominions in ways that encouraged British investment. Moreover, imperial ideology may have influenced investors' decisions in ways that the existing historiography does not adequately explore: at least some British investors may have been willing to accept a lower anticipated rate of return because they valued the psychological satisfaction of investing in territories that happened to be part of the British Empire. This article compares the experience of British investment in the United States, which has an ambiguous relationship with the British World, with that of investment in Canada with a view to understanding the impact of the British World identity on investment patterns.     

RURAL OUT-MIGRATION IN SOUTHERN MANITOBA

Rural out-migration from southern Manitoba over the period 1971–76 is subjected to a path-analytic model which claims that the exodus is due to unsatisfactory economic and social conditions. In particular, the model is structured so that migration and community satisfaction both depend upon the economic standing of a community. Results indicate that while economic conditions are key factors in rural out-migration, other variables, especially those representative of rural isolation, are also of great importance. These conclusions remain tenable even after allowing for feedback effects from the rural out-migration.
L'émigration rural de Manitoba du sud au cours de l'époque 1971–76 est éxposé dans un modèle « path-analytic >> qui réclame que cette émigration est attendu que la situation économique et sociale inadéquate. En particular, cette modèle énonce que l'émigration et la satisfaction de la société dépendent sur la condition économique de cette société. Les résultats indiquent qu'autres facteurs, comme l'éloignement rural, sont importants aussi que la situation économique. Ces résultats sont encore vrais quand même les effets de l'émigration rurale sont rendu compte de la région rurale.     

Reviews

Book reviewed in this article:
Sibari; Thurii P. ZANCANI MONTUORO and G. PUGLIESE CARRATELLI (Eds)
Le Nave romane di Terrasini e l'aventura di Amilcare sul Monte Heirkte. Sicilia archeologica che scompare 3. VITTORIO GIUSTOLISI
Archaeology of the boat BASIL GREENHILL
Fast Sailing Ships 1775–1875 Their design and construction DAVID R. MacGREGOR
Sailing craft of the British Isles ROGER FINCH
Ships' figureheads PETER NORTON
Dating in archaeology S. FLEMING
Guide to the marine stations of the North Atlantic and European waters Part 2. The Mediterranean Basin Compiled by J. E. WEBB
L'Archéologie Sous-Marine: fouille d'une épave antique.     

Metals, Salt, and Slaves: Economic Links Between Gaul and Italy From the Eighth to the Late Sixth Centuries BC

Summary.   This paper discusses the role of metals, salt, textiles, and slaves in the development of networks of reciprocal exchange that interlinked the élites of Etruscan Italy and Early Iron Age Gaul between the eighth and sixth centuries BC. Maritime and transalpine contact are considered separately. Certain regional specialisms in Gaul are discussed: metals in the west and centre, supporting prosperous HaD élites around the rim of the Massif Central, salt on coasts and in the east, perhaps in exchange for Italian textiles, and slaves perhaps especially from the sixth-century BC Aisne–Marne/Mont Lassois complex. A principal point is to establish the ubiquity and economic importance of women and children as domestic slaves both in Italy and Gaul and their consequent significance as valuable objects of élite exchange. Development in patterns of slave procurement during this period are considered.     

Business Failure,Capital Investment and Information: Mining Companies in the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, 1900–13

Investment in mining enterprises in the British Empire was popular in the period 1880–1914 despite the high-risk nature of the business and the presence of unscrupulous company promoters who sought only pecuniary gain; most mining companies failed. This article examines the reasons for the failure of mining companies in Sudan to 1913, using this analysis to explore the importance of information for mining investment, the role of business and social networks in the formation of mining companies, the relationship between business and colonial government, and the ‘gentlemanly’ nature of the City of London as a financial centre with reference to the provision of capital and related specialist mining services. The main reason for the failure of mining in Sudan was deficient information on which investment decisions were based, related to inaccurate notions of mineral wealth located in the colony. Nevertheless, the dynamism of the City at this time can partly be explained by the ability to tease out commercial opportunity in the most marginal of locations with the minimum of capital outlay.     

The British Empire and the American Atlantic on Tristan da Cunha, 1811–16

The first permanent settlement on Tristan da Cunha was established in 1811 by the American Jonathan Lambert. News of Lambert's claim, which followed ceremonies of possession recognised by both British and American observers, spread throughout the Atlantic. Doubts soon emerged, however, as to Lambert's nationality and as to whether he claimed the island for himself, for the United States or for Britain. This article considers Lambert's settlement, the promulgation of his claim and the re-casting of both Lambert and his claim as British, an act which implicitly recognised the strength of Lambert's claim while appropriating that claim for imperial ends. Because Britons and Americans claimed sovereignty and ownership in the Atlantic in similar ways, the competition between British and American claims to Tristan sheds light on those ways' common British roots.     

In No One's Shadow: British Politics in the Age of Anne and the Writing of the History of the House of Commons

The publication in 1967 of Geoffrey Holmes's masterpiece, British Politics in the Age of Anne , effectively demolished the interpretation of the 'political structure' of early 18th-century England that had been advanced by the American historian R.R. Walcott as a conscious imitation of Sir Lewis Namier. But to understand the significance of Holmes's work solely in an anti-Namierite context is misleading. For one thing, his book only completed a process of reaction against Walcott's work that was already under way in unpublished theses and scholarly articles (some by Holmes himself). Second, Holmes's approach was not simplistically anti-Namierist, as some (though not all) of Namier's followers recognized. Indeed, he was strongly sympathetic to the biographical approach, while acknowledging its limitations. The significance of Holmes's book to the study of the house of commons 1702–14 (and of the unpublished study of 'the Great Ministry' of 1710–14 to which it had originally been intended as a long introduction), was in fact much broader than the restoration of party divisions as central to political conflict. It was the re-creation of a political world, not merely the delineations of political allegiances, that made British Politics in the Age of Anne such a landmark in writing on this period.     

The shaping of the American Empire

This paper creates a traditional, counterfactual, historical geography that proposes the rise of an American Empire in the 1800s instead of the British. The industrialization of the British world-economy of the early 1800s, victory in the Napoleonic Wars, and the consequent success of the British Empire fundamentally depended on cotton textiles, thus on American cotton agriculture. Cotton was, to the economies of the nineteenth century, very much like oil is to those of the late twentieth and early twenty-first enturies. The development of the American cotton South after 1800 was based heavily on the reproduction of slaves within the South. Had Jefferson ended slavery, as he at one time considered, I suggest that an alternative America would have arisen in which Jeffersonian idealism would have encouraged family farms as the principal units of agricultural production. I further argue that, absent the availability of cheap British manufactures, the Philadelphia School of Protectionists would also have likely triumphed early and an American industrial development based on internal growth fueled by cotton grown on family farms would have allowed America to come to dominate the world-economy of the late 1800s. Protectionist policies would have similarly excluded French manufactures and the industrial development based on cotton the French were also attempting in the late 1700s would have failed just as did that of Britain. French military victory in the Napoleonic Wars would not have produced a French world-economy. An America without serious global opposition would not have resisted annexing all of Mexico and Canada in the 1840s and expanding aggressively into Asia via the Pacific basin and Hawaii to create an American Empire.     

Promoting solidarity at home and abroad: the goals and tactics of the anti-Vietnam War movement in Britain

This article explores the nature, tactics and effectiveness of the vocal anti-Vietnam war movement in Britain. It focuses on the rhetoric and actions of a range of different groups, from the far-Left Vietnam Solidarity Campaign, to the broad-Left British Council for Peace in Vietnam and the labour movement. It asks how far the anti-war opposition was able to shape both government policy and public debate on the war, and positions the British opposition within its wider global anti-war context. It explores the meanings of solidarity (with the American, or global, anti-war movement or with the North Vietnamese) for the British movement, and it highlights the ultimately domestic focus of the campaign.     

Anglo-American Interest in Cerebral Physiology

This paper shows the relative influence of Ferrier and Hitzig on American and British interest in cerebral physiology in the early 1870s. Although Hitzig published three years before Ferrier, Ferrier was more influential. Evidence comes from multiple sources: numerical trends in citations to Fritsch and Hitzig in British and American publications showed an increase after Ferrier's work. Hitzig's work was primarily discussed in the context of Ferrier's work. Ferrier's work was more impressive than Hitzig's work to American and British contemporaries. Ferrier's work was applicable to medical issues. The secular press failed to popularize Hitzig's work. Was national pride evident?