ICE-WEDGE CRACKS, WESTERN ARCTIC COAST

Ice-wedge ice is one of the most abundant types of nearly pure ground ice to be found along the western Arctic coast and, indeed, in many other permafrost areas of the world. Ice wedges grow because thermal contraction cracks open in winter and become infilled with water in spring to form incremental ice veinlets. Long-term winter observations along the western Arctic coast have provided details of crack opening and closing, propagation, and cracking frequency. Ice-wedge cracking is sensitive to climatic factors, particularly the winter snowfall. Therefore, long-term monitoring of ice-wedge cracks should be of interest in the study of climatic change and the interpretation of the size-age relations of ice wedges.     

Publications New Archaeological Books and Journals

Abstract

An electrical resistivity survey and accompanying soil analyses were performed over an exposed but unexcavated prehistoric house in Peoria loess in westcentral Illinois. Positive resistivity anomalies occur along the trenches for the house walls and within the house and distinctive patterns in contoured resistivity data occur over the house.

Soil analyses show that quartz, kaolinite, montmorillonite, illite, and hematite are the main mineral constituents in the soil. Within the house basin, the soil is dark gray in color because of the presence of organic carbon. Prominent positive electrical resistivity anomalies occur where the dark soil is thickest.

Analyses of the resistivity and soil data enable the identification of several anthropogenic features within the house and suggest that electrical resistivity data would be helpful to archaeologists in doing both detailed and reconnaissance work. For example, the mean amplitude and fabric patterns in contoured resistivity are distinctive over the house relative to areas outside the house. This fact suggests that similar analyses of reconnaissance resistivity data might be helpful in exploration for large archaeologic activity areas such as whole villages or camps. Also, detailed analyses of the resistivity and soil data, in conjunction with information already available from other excavated structures at Orendorf village, suggest that the electrical resistivity technique can serve as a valuable, but ancillary, tool to help archaeologists focus their efforts and decide which of the many structures in a village should be excavated.     

Simplexity and the Reinvention of Equifinality

Some earth surface systems apparently exhibit deterministic chaos, where small differences in initial conditions produce increasingly divergent results. This casts doubt on the venerable concept of equifinality, whereby surface features converge to similar forms. However, chaotic systems exhibit a broader-scale order, and their complex patterns occur within well-defined limits. This broad-scale order arising from smaller-scale chaos produces simplexity, where simple rules and regularities emerge from underlying complexity, when the broad-scale structures are independent of the fine-scale details. Chaos precludes equifinality, sensu stricto, at certain scales, but simplexity produces equifinality at others. Simplexity is illustrated in a case study of soil-landform relationships.     

The Use of Optical Coherence Tomography for Monitoring the Subsurface Morphologies of Archaic Jades

We demonstrate the use of the Optical Coherence Tomography (OCT) technique for non‐invasive scanning of the subsurface morphologies of jade objects. The two‐dimensional tomography images show the refractive index or dielectric constant variations in the samples, reflecting their structures. Three samples of archaic jade objects from the Qijia and Liangzhu cultures in China are scanned in order to understand the subsurface morphologies of the naturally whitened jades. Also, two jade objects with artificial treatments (burning) are scanned and compared with the original materials in subsurface structures. In the original objects, the jade materials can generally be quite transparent, such that the backscattering intensity is weak, although the large‐scale (tens of microns or larger) subsurface morphology can be clearly observed. After burning, small‐scale (smaller than a few microns) structures are formed and the backscattering intensity is enhanced. In this situation, the large‐scale structures may be preserved or even newly generated. On the other hand, in an archaic object with natural whitening, small‐scale structures are also formed. Hence, the deeper distributions of significant backscattering intensity are observed, when compared with the unwhitened objects. Nevertheless, the large‐scale features diminish during the whitening process. With OCT scanning, such differences in subsurface morphology can provide us a valuable reference for authenticating archaic jade objects.     

Testing flora as bioindicator of buried structures in the archaeological area of Maxentius’s villa (Rome,Italy)

The flora of the archaeological area of Maxentius’s villa (Rome) was tested as bioindicator of buried remains of masonry and pavements. A total of 53 floristic surveys provided the occurrence of each species in sample units, as well as some their phenological features. The data were elaborated through multivariate statistical analysis in order to assess floristic affinities/differences among sample units, and define their ecological characteristics. The fuzzy set methodology was applied to evaluate relation between floristic richness, plant cover and soil depth. Results showed that the buried remains of stonework create a discontinuity in the ground, influencing the flora growing above it. This phenomenon may give rise to differential presence of some species (e.g., Cota tinctoria, Trifolium scabrum ssp. scabrum on thin soil; Ranunculus bulbosus, Trifolium pratense on deeper soil), but will not have such a great effect on floristic richness. The bioindication of this phenomenon also occurs through phenological irregularities in single specimens and changes in plant cover. Nevertheless other environmental factors (soil moisture/aridity, trampling, enrichment of nitrogen, cutting, ground depression) can interfere with the use of plants as bioindicators of buried structures. It is therefore necessary to consider other factors ecological influencing each site when you want to use plants as bioindicators in archaeological prospection.     

The Suitability of 3D Data: 3D Digitisation of Human Remains

The use of 3D data in the analysis of skeletal and fossil materials has conveyed numerous advantages in many fields; however, as the availability and use of 3D scanning equipment are rapidly increasing, it is important for researchers to consider whether these methods are suitable for the proposed study. The issue of suitability has been largely overlooked in previous research; for instance, casts and reconstruction methods are frequently used to increase sample sizes, without sufficient assessment of the effect, this may have on the accuracy and reliability of results. Furthermore, the reliability of geometric morphometric methods and the implications of virtual curation have not received sufficient consideration. This paper discusses the suitability of 3D research with regard to the accuracy, reliability, and accessibility of methods and materials, as well as the effects of the current learning environment. Areas where future work will progress 3D research are proposed.     

Human Interferon

Abstract

Often in materials engineering we can envisage what new materials we wish to have and so point research in directions that make our aims achievable. As time progresses, such aims evolve, become increasingly diverse, and occasionally lead to quite unexpected provisions. From other viewpoints, we can also consider what we would like to be missing and this leads in further directions, to the removal of materials, or of specific elements within them, in relation to disposal, recycling, or purification to a level where subsequent additions can have highly beneficial effects. It is less obvious that, within materials, some atoms are always missing. These comprise only a small fraction, but enough to have major effects, and they can be regarded as vacancies that exist at places where atoms are normally situated. Their influence is greatest at elevated temperatures, for then they can move most easily, and so permit diffusion of the surrounding atoms. Their movement is random but under driving forces they drift in specific directions: under stress or chemical influences this can lead to distortion through transfer of atomic positions or to fracture through the formation of holes if the vacancies agglomerate. Such effects may be disastrous but, conversely, they can also be beneficial in assisting materials to bond together, especially when use can be made of the space created within them. It is natural to think of the characteristics of materials but important also to think of the usefulness of the space they provide. Lightweight, large scale structures covering wide spans come into this category, as do vessels for the containment of gases at high pressures. Sometimes, it is constructive to regard space as a valuable component of a composite material.     

Parameters in the use of pXRF for archaeological site prospection: a case study at the Reaume Fort Site,Central Minnesota

Field portable/hand-held x-ray fluorescence (pXRF) analyzers have been characterized as potentially useful for archaeological site prospection, but little has been published on the parameters of their use in this manner. The purpose of this study is to explore whether the variability of surface geochemistry as characterized with a pXRF analyzer corresponds with subsurface archaeological features at a site subsequently excavated, and what conditions influence the success of this endeavor, including feature depths, soil moisture, and sample processing. A 520 m² within-site area was systematically surveyed on a 2 m interval, within which several types of archaeological features were excavated (chimney bases, wall trenches, and a bonebed of faunal waste), taking readings in situ and collecting samples for ex situ testing (undried, dried but not powdered, and dried/powdered). The four different tests of each grid location, analyzed through univariate and multivariate tests, showed that the pXRF surface data does correspond with some types of subsurface features when those features are very shallow (within 5 cm of surface level) and are associated with clayey fills. Further, the data from the subsurface samples provides excellent distinction of feature fills from other sediments, regardless of sample preparation. In situ surface survey with pXRF analyzers may however be adequate for sites with a thorough baseline geochemical database.     

The devolution of mudbrick: ethnoarchaeology of abandoned earthen dwellings in the Bolivian Andes

This ethno-geoarchaeological study considers the formation of archaeological deposits through a study of abandoned contemporary mudbrick structures on the Taraco Peninsula, Bolivia. The study site was a domestic compound with rooms for different functions that had been abandoned for over 50 years. Structures were in variable states of decay in terms of roof cover, walling integrity and abandonment fills. Geoarchaeological samples were collected from intact and weathered adobes, earthen hearths, mud plaster, and flooring. Adobes and mud plaster were locally derived from topsoil containing archaeological sediments with added gravel and plant temper. This study found a relatively light anthropogenic signature for decayed earthen houses.Rising damp exfoliated mud plaster despite un-mortared cobble wall foundations. Organic matter from roof fall attracted thriving soil faunal populations, which furthered site destruction through bioturbation, particularly packed earth floors. Sediments derived from weathered mudbrick retained little evidence of prior use as construction materials unless exposed to heat. Sediments exposed to high-temperatures produced the most distinctive rubified features but were structurally compromised. Isolated thermal features from decomposed adobe would not be distinguishable from other hearth types. Adobes exposed to low or moderate heat had few distinctive features in thin section. Intact adobes and floors that were not exposed to heat have fewer pores than natural sediments and distinctive grass inclusions. These adobes disarticulated into loose sediments when exposed to weathering. Adobe fall outside the crumbling structures blended into topsoil.This study sheds light on functional attributes of pre-Columbian construction practices. Thick, fine-textured sterile flooring is commonly encountered in the study region. This would control bioturbation from roof fall in a previous occupation enabling reconstruction in abandoned dwellings. In contrast to the contemporary dwelling, prehistoric mortared cobble foundations would resist rising damp. Cobbles without mortar may relate more to design and construction than durability. These contrasts between contemporary and prehistory construction practices reflect differences in the design, construction costs and functional use-life of adobe structures.     

Calcium–iron–phosphate features in archaeological sediments: characterization through microfocus synchrotron X-ray scattering analyses

The occurrence of amorphous calcium (Ca)–iron (Fe)–phosphate infilling features in thin-section samples from archaeological stratigraphies is increasingly being reported and used in the cultural interpretations of sites. In some contexts, these materials are the product of dissolution and recrystallization of bone material within pores of the soil or sediment matrix. This study uses transmitted microfocus X-ray scattering to characterize and measure features of known cod fish bone (Gadus morhua) materials, and compare them to archaeological samples of amorphous Ca-Fe-phosphate infilling material found in thin section from early fishing community sites. The analyses characterize the structure of these features for the first time, and allow discussion of the diagenetic processes that lead to their formation.     

Do geotextiles affect soil biological activity in the ‘reburial’ environment?

Abstract

The effect of five different proprietary geotextiles on the activity of soil micro-organisms (respiration as measured by CO₂ production) has been investigated in model laboratory chambers. The aim was to determine whether geotextiles, used to ‘protect’ archaeological materials during conservation by reburial, influence microbial processes that may promote biodegradation of organic archaeological materials by altering the physical properties of the soil. Four of the geotextiles were composed of either polythene or polypropylene and did not provide substrates for microorganisms. These four geotextiles had no significant effect on microbial activity over a short-term (56 days) burial period. By contrast, one of the geotextiles had a core of wheat straw and coconut fibre bonded in a polypropylene mesh. This geotextile led to increased microbial activity as a result of biodegradation of the straw and fibre core. From a practical point of view, these data suggest that geotextiles that are not themselves readily biodegradable did not enhance biodegradation of other organic material in the short term in the burial environment. If the use of geotextiles offers other advantages, such as providing a marker in the soil or back-fill, or because they facilitate subsequent cleaning and preservation operations, then their use is warranted.     

The Pictish Mirror Symbol and archaeological evidence for mirrors in Scotland

The archaeological evidence for mirrors in Iron Age, Roman and Early Historic Scotland is examined and compared with the depiction of Mirror Symbols on Pictish sculpture. Bar-, shaped- and triangular-handled mirrors which occur in the archaeological record are all represented on Pictish sculpture, and other types of mirror unknown archaeologically from Scotland also occur on Pictish sculpture. The Pictish Mirror symbol, either alone or in conjunction with the Comb symbol, is usually thought to have acted as a qualifier for other pairs of symbols and to be feminine; but the evidence does not support this and it probably acted as a status qualifier for particular individuals rather than for other symbols, and may be linked to royalty.     

土质建筑遗址传统营造技法的演化与特征探析

土是延用至今最重要的建筑材料之一,在人类认知和掌握不同环境土的性能和特点的进程中,创造了类型丰富的土质建筑遗址。对传统营造工艺的认知、传承、挖掘和应用成为当下土质建筑遗址保护的关键问题。因此,本工作基于土质建筑遗址保存现状、建筑形制、结构特征和传统营造技法调查,结合文献记载和研究成果,按照营造技法将土建筑遗址分为生土挖造、泥土堆筑、生土夯筑、土坯砌筑和湿泥垛筑5大类15亚类,阐释了随着生产力的发展和功能需要多方面共同推动,营造技法呈递进式发展演化,且呈现出不同营造技法既具备各自的鲜明特征又相互渗透的特点,也是适应环境和功能需求的具体体现,具有一定的规律性。研究结果为深入研究早期建筑形制和营造技法提供了依据。     

Geoarchaeological evidence for ritual closure of a kiva at Fourmile Ruin,Arizona

Geoarchaeological analyses, including soil micromorphology and chemistry, were used to characterize the deposition history of a fourteenth-century Pueblo ceremonial structure (or kiva) at Fourmile Ruin, east-central Arizona. These subterranean structures were often ritually “closed” by Pueblo societies through the burning of roofs and the deposition of special objects. These conspicuous markers are absent in the Fourmile Ruin kiva, but the composition of constituent materials and sedimentation processes nonetheless signal complex, highly-orchestrated closure activities. The study demonstrates the efficacy of geoarchaeological analyses of stratified deposits for modeling the subtle behaviors associated with the ritual closure and abandonment of sacred places.     

Physicochemical characterization and provenance of colouring materials from Akrotiri-Thera in relation to their archaeological context and application

An assemblage of approximately 500 colouring materials and objects related to their use, found in different contexts and forms at Akrotiri, Thera, was recently investigated. The items date to the Early, Middle and Late Cycladic Bronze Age (c. 3000?C1600 bc) and include materials or pigments found in their natural state, in specifically made forms or inside vessels. Some of the contexts do not provide any indication of the pigments?? use, storage, trade or application. Among the investigated materials, which include red and yellow ochres and blue riebeckite, are those that can be associated with pigments that were widely used in the past in wall paintings or to decorate pottery. There is also evidence for the selective use of purple pigments, which were derived from shellfish, in wall paintings. However, there are other raw colouring materials, such as lead pigments that have not been previously known to have been used in wall paintings or in any other applications during the prehistoric period in the Aegean. A thorough macro- and microscopic visual examination of the quality and morphology of these items enabled the identification of physical features (colour, homogeneity, grain size and shape) that indicate their nature or degree of processing. To identify the mineral composition of the pigments and to investigate their provenance from a geological perspective, quantitative X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis was conducted. For those samples requiring additional information on their composition and for the refining or confirming of the XRD data, scanning electron microscopy combined with energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (SEM-EDX), micro-Raman and Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopies were performed. This work is part of a larger project, supported by Institute for Aegean Prehistory, that aims to clarify major archaeological queries that are not restricted to the identification of the nature, composition and provenance of the colouring materials but extend to aspects of their selection, preparation and application techniques used during the Early to the Late Bronze Age.     

Influence of Handaxe Size and Shape on Cutting Efficiency: A Large-Scale Experiment and Morphometric Analysis

Handaxes represent one of the most temporally enduring and geographically widespread of Palaeolithic artifacts and thus comprised a key technological strategy of many hominin populations. Archaeologically observable variation in the size (i.e., mass) and shape properties of handaxes has been frequently noted. It is logical to ask whether some of this variability may have had functional implications. Here, we report the results of a large-scale (n?=?500 handaxes) experiment designed to examine the influence of variation in handaxe size and shape on cutting efficiency rates during a laboratory task. We used a comprehensive dataset of morphometric (size-adjusted) shape variables and statistical methods (including multivariate methods) to address this issue. Our first set of analyses focused on handaxe mass/size variability. This analysis demonstrated that, at a broad-scale level of variation, handaxe mass may have been free to vary independently of functional (cutting) efficiency. Our analysis also, however, identified that there will be a task-specific threshold in terms of functional effectiveness at the lower end of handaxe mass variation. This implies that hominins may have targeted design forms to meet minimal (task-specific) thresholds and may also have managed handaxe reduction and discard in respect to such factors. Our second set of analyses focused on handaxe shape variability. This analysis also indicated that considerable variation in handaxe shape may occur independently of any strong effect on cutting efficiency. We discuss how these results have several implications for considerations of handaxe variation in the archaeological record. At a general level, our results demonstrate that variability within and between handaxe assemblages in terms of their size and shape properties will not necessarily have had immediate or strong impact on their effectiveness when used for cutting, and that such variability may have been related to factors other than functional issues.     

The use of geosynthetics for archaeological site reburial

Abstract

Applications of geosynthetic materials in reburial practice include geotextiles for separation, filtration and protection (cushioning); geomembranes and geosynthetic clay liners for infiltration control; geonets and geocomposites for sub-surface drainage; and geocells for erosion control. Mechanically stabilized earth reinforcement using geocells, geogrids and geotextiles can also provide substantial benefits for reburial projects by reducing lateral earth pressure against backfilled structures. Other aspects of modern geotechnology that may be useful for reburial projects include micro-piles and soil nailing for foundation and excavation support and evapotranspirative capping technology to establish the depth of soil cover required to isolate a structure or artefact from moisture and temperature fluctuations. Optimal application of these geotechnologies requires an understanding of the basic engineering principles associated with their implementation, as well as knowledge of the factors influencing archaeological site preservation.     

Earthen Architecture at the Bluff Great House Site in SE Utah

Abstract

An earthen terrace has been identified at Bluff Great House, a Chacoan site located in SE Utah. The Bluff site was part of the Chacoan regional system that operated in the northern part of the American Southwest between about A.D. 900 and 1150 and was focused on Chaco Canyon in NW New Mexico. Several types of earthen structures have been identified at great houses in Chaco Canyon and throughout its region, usually associated with the construction of ritual landscapes. The Bluff terrace is part of this tradition of earthen construction, but is unlike most other reported examples. It seems to express the same concern with creating an appropriate setting, however, and may be interpreted as part of the ritual landscape that surrounded and defined the Bluff great house, although other interpretations are considered. It dates not only to the Chaco era, but also to the first part of the post-Chaco era (A.D. 1150–1225).     

The Roman wreck of c. AD 200 at Plemmirio, near Siracusa (Sicily): Interim report

A Roman wreck, named Plemmirio B^[1]i, lies on the rocky talus below the southern cliffs of Capo Murro di Porco, near Costa Bianca del Plemmirio (Penisola della Maddalena), prov. Siracusa, Sicily. The cargo of amphoras and iron bars, relatively well-preserved, is situated between 22 m and 47 m depth. Following brief examinations in 1974–1982, a University of Bristol expedition spent four weeks surveying the site in July-August 1983^[2] This paper presents an interim summary of these campaigns; a comprehensive report will be published after completion of excavations at the site^[3]. The archaeological deposit at Plemmirio B is characterized by concentrations of fragmented amphoras. There is no direct evidence for the structure of the ship, much of which may have disintegrated during the initial wreck process, but study of the artefact distribution suggests a vessel of fairly large capacity. The amphora consignment (which may have numbered no more than 200) comprised cylindrical African containers, 80% of which were form Africana 2A and 20% Africana 1^[4] w. The Africana 2A amphoras had internal resinous linings, and so may have contained a fish product rather than olive oil. Other amphoras exposed on the site were at least one Mauretanian Dressel 30 (Keay type 1) and two possibly intrusive amphoras of unclassified types. Ferrous concretions contained voids (hollow casts) which may once have been about 39 wrought iron bars, of two distinctive shapes. These, and several other concretions of unidentified forms, may represent a consignment of iron originally weighing approximately one tonne. Other finds from the wreck are two cooking pots, a small bowl or cup, a sounding lead, three fragments of tegula rooftiles, and two small stone blocks. One of the cooking pots confirms a date for the wreck based on the amphora association of circa AD 180–250, most likely in the first decade of the 3rd century. The amphora assemblage belongs to an important phase of commerce from North Africa represented by at least 20 known wreck cargoes; however, few of these sites have been scientifically recorded or are as closely dated as Plemmirio B, and the diversity of container types and cargo consignments on this wreck is of particular interest.     

The Summer Meeting at Northampton

In the study of relict landscapes the definition of layers or phases may be logically necessary but can be fundamentally misleading. The real world normally involves a continuum of activity, in which continuity is more important than cataclysmic change. Detailed field maps of landscape survivals in a Westmorland township are used to formulate a possible temporal framework of development, which casts doubt upon existing chronological assumptions and illuminates the processes of village development. The discussion shows how complex multi-period landscapes, including both relict features and functioning elements, can be recorded, interpreted and presented with a measure of reinterpretable objectivity.