Skeletal Kinship Analysis Using Developmental Anomalies of the Foot

Developmental anomalies of the skeleton are often treated as mere curiosities, but in some contexts, they may prove useful to bioarchaeologists for answering questions about the past. One such use can be found in skeletal kinship analysis, where discrete traits can help to identify close genetic relatives in archaeological cemeteries. Previous research suggests that discrete traits used for skeletal kinship analysis should have several characteristics—they must obviously be heritable, but in addition, they should be easy to score as present or absent, their frequencies should not vary by age or sex, and they should be low frequency traits. Low frequency traits are less likely than higher frequency traits to be found in two individuals merely by chance. In this study, we consider 17 developmental anomalies of the human foot as candidates for use in skeletal kinship analysis. The traits are evaluated in terms of the characteristics described above, after which kinship analyses are attempted on two different populations. Ten of the anomalies are found to be good candidates for skeletal kinship analysis, including accessory navicular, four different forms of brachydactyly, three types of tarsal coalition, and two forms of the os intermetatarseum. When frequencies of these traits were examined and compared to a reference sample in three cemeteries, however, only a single group of six possible genetic relatives were identified. The results suggest that skeletal kinship analysis using individual heritable traits is perhaps best applied to small cemeteries or burial clusters rather than larger cemeteries containing many different lineages. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Skeletal element abundances in archaeofaunal assemblages: economic utility,sample size,and assessment of carcass transport strategies

Economic utility indices provide a means of interpreting butchery and transport decisions reflected in the relative abundance of skeletal elements. Because of destructive taphonomic processes, interpreting skeletal element abundances in terms of carcass transport strategies requires that faunal analysts consider only those elements which accurately reflect their original abundances following human discard. In this study we use resampling techniques to examine the impact of sample size on correlations between high-survival skeletal element frequencies and economic utility in four simulated population assemblages reflecting distinct carcass transport strategies. Correlations alone do not accurately reflect the true relationship between bone abundance and economic utility as particular transport strategies have a tendency to generate high frequencies of Type II errors as sample size decreases. We show that the Shannon evenness index can be used as a quantitative means of distinguishing between bone assemblages characterized by subtle variations in skeletal element abundances. The evenness index can also be used to evaluate whether observed correlations reflect sampling error. Results from our simulations are applied to three published faunal assemblages to evaluate likely carcass transport strategies.     

The end of slavery: Disease patterns and cultural behaviours of African Americans in Suriname

There have been few bioanthropological studies related to African Americans, either slaves or free people. The results of an analysis of eight skeletons of African ancestry (five males and three females) acquired in Suriname at the end of the 19th century by Dr J. Spilzley and currently housed in the Duckworth Collection (University of Cambridge) are presented. Dental abrasion related to habitual pipe smoking was observed in four individuals, confirming the widespread use of pipe to smoke tobacco among slaves observed in other related sites. Our results indicate a very poor state of oral health for these individuals, with females presenting a higher frequency of dental carious lesions and antemortem tooth loss in comparison with males. The presence of cribra orbitalia in some individuals suggests, as observed in other diaspora skeletal series, individuals suffering from severe stress, caused by poor nutrition, infectious diseases, or both. Such appalling life conditions agree with many written records, which describe very harsh work conditions and very deprived diets. Our results, although based in a small sample, contribute to a better understanding of the cultural behaviours as well as the patterns of disease that afflicted the African Americans in Suriname in the 19th century. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Morphological changes in the shape of the non‐pathological bony knee joint with age: a morphometric analysis of the distal femur and proximal tibia in three populations of known age at death

This study examines possible morphological variation in the knee joint of Homo sapiens with increasing age in ostensively healthy and non‐pathological distal femora and proximal tibiae. Throughout the lifetime of each individual, the hard tissue of the knee undergoes considerable remodelling as a response to biomechanical stresses, changes in bone microarchitecture and reduction of bone mineral content as a concomitant of ageing. The knee is also subject to greater levels of degenerative joint disease than any other joint. If death occurs whilst such diseases are in the earliest stages, initial bone changes may not be visually obvious in museum specimens. If such specimens are used for comparative analyses, it is hypothesised that changes might render it problematic if all ages are conglomerated into discrete samples. This study therefore investigates the degree to which the distal femur and proximal tibia change shape during ageing and, if changes are present, whether they are expressed similarly in males and females. It also examines whether changes are of greater magnitude than those morphological differences which might exist between populations. In an example population of African‐Americans, results indicate that there is a statistically significant difference in shape between age groups and those differences become progressively greater between the youngest and oldest adults. Results also show that although morphological variation caused by ageing is apparent, those shape differences attributable to sexual dimorphism are more powerful. When two additional populations are analysed jointly with the African‐Americans (Caucasian Americans and the European Spitalfields sample), results indicate that inter‐population shape differences are considerably greater than differences caused by increasing age. Results imply that it is justifiable to combine specimens of all ages into discrete samples for comparative purposes. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Foot anomalies in the Late Neolithic/Chalcolithic population exhumed from the rock cut cave of São Paulo 2 (Almada,Portugal)

The study of developmental abnormalities of the tarsal bones in a Portuguese Late Neolithic population was performed, as part of an ongoing research project that includes the evaluation of foot defects in Portuguese skeletal populations from Neolithic times to modern 20th century samples. Two accessory bones were found, calcaneum secundarium and os trigonum, and three non‐osseous coalitions were detected, calcaneonavicular, cuboid‐navicular and third metatarsal‐third cuneiform. The newly presented frequencies corresponded to other published sources, except for the frequency of calcaneum secundarium, higher than in previous studies (8.6% left bones; 15.2% right bones). This result suggests population homogeneity maybe due to geographic isolation and/or marriage customs although the exact pattern of inheritance of the majority of these foot anomalies is unknown. No apparent sex bias was detected and side could not be tested since these human remains were uncovered from a commingled funerary context. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Past or present? Differentiating California prehistoric native American remains from forensic cases: An empirical approach

The goal of this project is to provide additional data and statistical analyses for differentiating between prehistoric/historic Native American remains and modern forensic cases that may be potentially confusing. Forensic anthropologists often receive requests from local law enforcement to infer whether skeletal remains are of forensic or non‐forensic significance. Skeletal remains of non‐forensic significance are commonly of Native American ancestry, but the empirical methods common for determining Native American affinity from skeletal remains have not been established for California prehistoric/historic Native Americans. Therefore, forensic anthropologists working in California lack empirical methods for not only identifying prehistoric California Native American remains, but also differentiating them from modern/forensic populations whose skeletal attributes are similar. In particular, skeletal remains of Latin American US immigrants of indigenous origins are becoming more present in the forensic anthropological laboratory, and can exhibit the same suite of skeletal traits classically used to identify Native American affinity. In this article, we initiate an investigation into this issue by analyzing both craniometric and morphoscopic data using a range of statistical methods for differentiating prehistoric Northern California Native Americans from modern Guatemalan Maya. Our discriminant analyses results indicate that by using nine craniometric variables, group classification is 87% correct. In addition, seven morphoscopic variables can predict group classification correctly for 77% of the sample. The results suggest that it is possible to differentiate between our two samples. Such a method contributes to the efficient and empirical determination of temporal and geographic affinity, allowing for the repartriation of Native American remains to their tribes, as well as the accurate analysis of forensically significant remains. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Ancestry Estimation Based on Morphoscopic Traits in a Sample of African Slaves from Lagos,Portugal (15th–17th Centuries)

In 2009, a skeletal collection of 158 individuals was excavated in Valle da Gafaria, Lagos, Portugal. These individuals were buried in an unusual way, having been discarded in an urban dump located outside the medieval city walls, dated from the 15th–17th centuries. Lagos was, at the time, an important slave trade harbour, and during the excavation, the morphological appearance of the skulls and the presence of intentionally modified teeth in some individuals raised suspicion that they were African slaves. Despite the extensive historical information about the Atlantic slave trade, so far, skeletal remains identified as slaves were scarce, especially in Europe. The aim of the present study is to estimate the ancestry of a sample of 33 adult individuals (28 women and 5 men) recovered in the Valle da Gafaria applying eleven morphological characteristics using the naïve Bayes classifier. When comparing the individuals with four groups of classification (European, African, American Indian and Asian), 24 (72.7%) specimens were classified as Africans with a posterior probability greater than 0.90. When only two groups were considered (the African and the European), 31 (93.9%) individuals were classified as Africans with a posterior probability greater than 0.90. These results are in accordance with the historical record and previous genetic studies, suggesting that this sample represents a rare archaeological sample of great interest to the history of the Atlantic slave trade, that is, the Lagos individuals were probably of African ancestry. Although the ancestry is a parameter of the biological profile mainly estimated in forensic Anthropology, this study confirms the importance of its investigation in past populations. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Lingual cortical mandibular defects (Stafne's defect): an anthropological approach based on prehistoric skeletons from the Canary Islands

While posterior lingual mandibular depressions (Stafne's defect) are often discussed in clinical reports, they are rarely the subject of anthropological research. This situation is paradoxical since osteologists and skeletal biologists are in a position to enhance understanding of the trait's aetiology by systematically recording the trait in recent and prehistoric skeletal collections. This report reviews anthropological studies of cortical defects of the mandible, recommends a protocol for recording observations in trait variation, and presents new data for the prevalence of Stafne's defect—lingual cortical defects of the mandibular corpus. Among the Guanches of Tenerife in the Canary Islands (Spain), the prevalence of lingual cortical defects is 3.32% (15/452), males are more frequently affected than females, and there is a tendency for individuals with antemortem tooth loss to display larger lesions than individuals without antemortem loss of teeth. Defects of the left side are somewhat more variable in position than defects located on the right. In comparative perspective, prevalence of lingual cortical defects among the Guanches is high, given the overall 1.07% prevalence reported for archaeological series (Finnegan & Marcsik,1980), but is similar to figures reported for the Avar period sample from Hungary 3.73%. Prospects for the use of lingual cortical defects as non‐metric traits of value in population distance studies remain uncertain since variation in trait expression may have a high environmental component. However, if human osteologists routinely include observations of lingual mandibular cortical defects in their analysis of skeletal collections, the data required to elucidate factors responsible for the trait's cultural, ecological, temporal and geographical patterning will more rapidly become established. Copyright © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Non‐osseous calcaneonavicular coalition in the Portuguese prehistoric population: report of two cases

This paper reports articular surface defects detected in three foot bones. These were exhumed from Portuguese collective burial places, Hipogeu de São Paulo II (artificial cave, Almada) and Necrópole da Serra da Roupa (shelter, Columbeira) dated to the Late Neolithic and Chalcolithic periods. Other aetiologies were presented, but non‐osseous calcaneonavicular coalition proved to be the most probable explanation for the unusual morphology detected in two calcanei and one navicular bone. Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Race, Class, and Political Activism: Black, Chicana/o, and Japanese-American Leftists in Southern California, 1968–1978

This paper explores the third-world left in Los Angeles, from 1968–1978. In it I examine the political ideology and foci of one organization for each of the major racial/ethnic groups of the time: African Americans (Black Panther Party), Chicanas/os (El Centro de Accion Social y Autonomo [CASA]), and Japanese Americans (East Wind). In addition to reclaiming this relatively unknown history, I seek to explain the differences in the various organizations by analyzing them within the context of differential racialization. I argue that the distinct nature of each organization is at least partly due to the particular racial position of each racial/ethnic group within the local racial order.     

Archaeofaunal Relative Abundance,Sample Size,and Statistical Methods

Tests for correlations between sample size and taxonomic relative abundance are commonly used in zooarchaeological analyses to determine whether observed trends in relative abundance might simply be the result of sampling error. Monte Carlo simulations designed to evaluate the utility of this method indicate that it is inadequate as a means of detecting errors resulting from the incorporation of small samples in an analysis. Among simulated sets of sample assemblages, significant correlatoins between sample size and relative abundance are distributed randomly with respect to whether or not Type II errors concerning trends in relative abundance are present, and are underrepresented in cases in which Type I errors are present. This is because the conditions that are most conducive to correlations between sample size and relative abundance are quite different from the conditions that will lead to erroneous conclusions about the presence or absence of a trend in relative abundance. An alternative chi-square-based statistical method for evaluating trends in sample relative abundance, Cochran's test of linear trend, results in lower rates of both Type I and Type II errors than is the case with previously used correlation-based methods.     

Is native anthropology really possible? (Respond to this article at https://www.therai.org.uk/publications/anthropology-today/debate)

Although native anthropologists are often understood to be quite different from non‐native anthropologists, this paper argues that the distinction is not as clear as is often presumed. Both types of anthropologists are partial outsiders who are positioned at a relative distance from those they study in the field. This is illustrated with a discussion of the author's own fieldwork with Japanese Americans as a ‘native anthropologist’. Ultimately, the cultural differences we experience with the ‘natives’ are productive for fieldwork and essential for anthropological knowledge.     

Inscribing nature: Archaeological metaphors and the formation of new sciences

Abstract

Ghanaian authorities restored Cape Coast Castle and Elmina Castle as memorials to the transatlantic slave trade in order to draw African Americans to Ghana. While this was a positive development for a travel industry that rarely caters to diaspora African needs, the Ghanaian initiative has evoked strong criticisms from concerned African Americans who feel that the restoration has erased the monuments' associated images of slavery and has removed the desired experiential effect. I focus on the complex interplay of these concerns, African Americans' previous attempts to preserve some of these monuments and the history of structural changes to the monuments. These complex issues require several layers of analysis. I situate my discussion within the debate of whether there is any such thing as original monuments and whether there is a necessary correlation between monuments per se and the experience of historical reality. For African Americans, such a strong relationship can be established. The preservation of these monuments, of global significance, calls for an international dialogue based on respect, tolerance and sensitivity.     

Healed bone fractures in a jomon skeletal population from the Yoshigo shell mound,Aichi Prefecture,Japan

Healed bone fractures were quantitatively analyzed in an ancient Japanese population. The sample studied consisted of the skeletal remains of 160 adult individuals from the Yoshigo shell mound (ca. BP 3400‐2400), Aichi prefecture, Japan. Healed fractures were diagnosed from the presence of callus formation and/or angular deformity. Fractures were frequently seen in small bones of the hand and foot such as the metacarpals, rather than in large long bones such as the clavicle, humerus, radius, ulna, femur, tibia and fibula. Of a total of 517 intact large long bones, only four fractures (0.8%) were recognized. The prevalence and pattern of bone fractures in the Yoshigo population reflects the relative lack of stress in their life‐style. Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

On the spatial and technological organisation of hafting modifications in the North African Middle Stone Age

Aterian stone tools represent one of the clearest indications of technological regionalisation in the North African Middle Stone Age. Found in association with Homo sapiens skeletal remains and more recently with symbolic material culture, the Aterian is widely thought to reflect modern human identity and cognition. As a lithic industry, the Aterian has been primarily defined by the presence of stemmed or tanged tools, but there has been little quantitative study of the relationship between tangs and other forms of hafting modifications, such as shouldering and basal thinning. Understanding the diversity of these features and their relationships with one another will clarify the organisation and adaptations of North African populations during Marine Isotope Stage 5 (MIS 5, ∼130–70,000 years ago), a critical timespan for modern human dispersal. This paper presents the results of a stepped analysis of fifteen Aterian and other non-Aterian assemblages from the same spatial and temporal bracket in North Africa. Using Correspondence Analyses together with a suite of other statistics, the results indicate that tanging represents a widely applied strategy of hafting a variety of different tools. On the other hand, basal thinning is specifically correlated with lightweight, highly retouched points. The distribution of these features appears to reflect geographical proximity and shared environments, rather than articulating with traditional named industries. This in turn suggests that a continued focus on tangs to differentiate an ‘Aterian’ from other, contemporary North African MSA industries may be obfuscating regional-scale patterns of technological diversity.     

Risk Management Strategies Among African-American Slaves at Locust Grove Plantation

African Americans faced a variety of risks under the institution of slavery. The theory of risk management is used as a context for understanding the lives of slaves at Locust Grove Plantation in Kentucky and for deconstructing the common myth that slavery was unusually mild there. African Americans used a diversity of means at Locust Grove to cope with risk, including generalized reciprocity, food storage, religion, and strong kinship/community bonds.     

Baboon Bone Mineral Densities: Implications for the Taphonomy of Primate Skeletons in South African Cave Sites

C. K. Brain (e.g., 1981) documented an interesting difference in relative skeletal part representation between primates and bovids of similar live body size recovered from the fossil cave site of Swartkrans (South Africa). Hominids and baboons are represented primarily by skull parts and a paucity of postcranial bones, while small sized bovids (Size Classes 1 & 2) are represented by more equivalent abundances of all skeletal elements. Brain argued that the Swartkrans bones were primarily carnivore collected, and postulated that the difference in element frequencies between primates and bovids is the manifestation of less durable primate postcranial skeletons relative to those of bovids when either are subjected to a destructive process such as carnivore feeding. Experiments by Brain (1981) in which baboon and bovid carcasses were fed to large, African carnivores lend support to this hypothesis. Bovid postcranial elements survived carnivore feeding more frequently and more completely than those of primates. Assuming that bulk bone mineral density (bulk BMD) is a measure of durability, we supplement Brain's observational data by presenting the first systematic, element-by-element comparison of baboon and bovid postcranial bulk BMD measurements obtained by dual energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA). While the bovid in our sample exhibits greater absolute bulk BMD values in 57·8% of all measured bone areas, when grouping areas by body region, a statistically significant difference in absolute bulk BMD values between the baboons and bovids is documented only in the hindlimb region (i.e., femur, tibia and patella). Density differences in other body regions are not statistically significant. Further, in only one case (i.e., small bovids in the Member 2 [1948–1953/1965–1975 excavation] assemblage) is there a significant and positive correlation between skeletal part frequencies of primates or bovids and bulk BMD. This suggests that, for the most part, primate and bovid skeletal part representation at Swartkrans is not the result of density-mediated processes. Differences in skeletal part representation between primates and bovids at Swartkrans may thus be attributable to factors other than bone density—such as bone size, length, shape, and/or the relative palatability of surrounding soft tissues on bones.     

‘Faced With Courage’: Interpreting and Presenting Sites of African American Heritage to the Public

Abstract

Archaeological sites involving African American history and life often remain un-interpreted or are poorly interpreted because it can be difficult for Americans to confront a deeply painful history of enslavement, racism, segregation, exploitation of labour, disenfranchisement, and displacement. In this article, I discuss specific case studies of archaeological sites representative of great injustices in American history and efforts to present these events, and the people who lived through them, through public interpretation.