WASTE GLASS,VESSELS AND WINDOW‐PANES FROM THAMUSIDA (MOROCCO): GROUPING NATRON‐BASED BLUE–GREEN AND COLOURLESS ROMAN GLASSES

A collection of window‐panes, vessels and alleged waste from Thamusida has been investigated by OM, SEM–EDS, ICP–MS, ICP–OES and XAS at the Fe–K and Mn–K edges. Glass samples have been characterized as natron‐based soda–lime–silica glasses, with low magnesium and low potassium. The results have been compared with 43 reference groups available for ‘naturally coloured’ and colourless glasses of both Roman and later ages. Two main types were distinguished: RBGY 1 (R oman B lue–G reen and Y ellow 1) and RBGY 2 (R oman B lue–G reen and Y ellow 2). Given their compositional similarity to the Levantine I or, to a lesser extent, HIMT glasses, the Syrian–Palestinian coast for RBGY 2 and Egypt for the RBGY 1 have been suggested for their provenance. Most Thamusida samples have been assigned to the RBGY 2 type. A small group of Thamusida colourless vessels was included into the RC (R oman‐C olourless) compositional field; the latter still being defined. The alleged waste pieces may define a local production that should have been of secondary type. The investigations performed on local raw materials seem to discount the possibility of a primary glass‐making site. XAS measurements determined that Fe²⁺ contents ranging between 30 and 52% are able to assure an aqua blue colour; below 30%, the glasses turn light green or light yellow.     

Monitoring fluid chemistry in iron oxide–copper–gold‐related metasomatic processes,eastern Mt Isa Block,Australia

Most researchers in the Proterozoic eastern Mt Isa Block, NW Queensland, Australia, favour magmatic fluid and salt sources for sodic‐(calcic) alteration and iron oxide–copper–gold mineralization. Here we compare spatial, mineralogic and stable isotope data from regional alteration assemblages with magmatic and magmatic‐hydrothermal interface rocks in order to track chemical and isotopic variations in fluid composition away from inferred fluid sources. Tightly clustered δ¹⁸O values for magnetite, quartz, feldspar and actinolite for igneous‐hosted samples reflect high temperature equilibration in the magmatic‐hydrothermal environment. In contrast, these minerals record predominantly higher δ¹⁸O values in regional alteration and Cu–Au mineralization. This dichotomy reflects partial equilibration with isotopically heavier wallrocks and slightly lower temperatures. Increases in Si concentrations of metasomatic amphiboles relative to igneous amphiboles in part reflect cooling of metasomatic fluids away from igneous rocks. Variations in X_Mg for metasomatic amphiboles indicate local wallrock controls on amphibole chemistry, while variations in X_Cl/X_OH ratios for amphiboles (at constant X_Mg) indicate variable aH₂O/aHCl ratios for metasomatic fluids. Biotite geochemistry also reflects cooling and both increases and decreases in aH₂O/aHCl for fluids away from plutonic rocks. Decreased aH₂O/aHCl ratios for metasomatic fluids reflect in part scavenging of chlorine out of meta‐evaporite sequences, although this process requires already saline fluids. Local increases in aH₂O/aHCl ratios, as well as local decreases in δ¹⁸O values for some minerals (most notably haematite and epithermal‐textured quartz), may indicate ingress of low salinity, low δ¹⁸O fluids of possible meteoric origin late in the hydrothermal history of the region. Taken together, our observations are most consistent with predominantly magmatic sources for metasomatic fluids in the eastern Mt Isa Block, but record chemical and isotopic variations along fluid flow paths that may be important in explaining some of the diversity in alteration and mineralization styles in the district.     

Isotopic and petrological evidence of fluid–rock interaction at a Tethyan ocean–continent transition in the Alps: implications for tectonic processes and carbon transfer during early ocean formation

We report overprinting stable isotope evidence of fluid–rock interaction below two detachment faults along which mantle rocks were exhumed to the seafloor, between the respective landward and seaward limits of oceanic and continental crust, at a Tethyan ocean–continent transition (OCT). This OCT, which is presently exposed in the Tasna nappe (south‐eastern Switzerland) is considered an on‐land analogue of the well‐studied Iberian OCT. We compare our results with the fault architecture (fault core–damage zone–protolith) described by Caine et al. [Geology (1996) Vol. 24, pp. 1025–1028]. We confirm the existence of a sharp boundary between the fault core and damage zone based on isotopic data, but the boundary between the damage zone and protolith is gradational. We identify evidence for: (1) pervasive isotopic modification to 8.4 ± 0.1‰ which accompanied or post‐dated serpentinization of these mantle rocks at an estimated temperature of 67–109°C, (2) either (i) partial isolation of some highly strained regions [fault core(s) and mylonite] from this pervasive isotopic modification, because of permeability reduction (Caine et al.) or (ii) subsequent isotopic modification caused by structurally channelled flow of warm fluids within these highly strained regions, because of permeability enhancement, and (3) isotopic modification, which is associated with extensive calcification at T = 54–100°C, primarily beneath the younger of the two detachment faults and post‐dating initial serpentinization. By comparing the volumetric extent of calcification with an experimentally verified model for calcite precipitation in veins, we conclude that calcification could have occurred in response to seawater infiltration, with a calculated flux rate of 0.1–0.2 m year^?1 and a minimum duration of 0.2–4.0 × 10⁴ years. The associated time‐averaged uptake flux of carbon during this period was 8–120 mol m^?2 year^?1. By comparison with the estimated area of exhumed mantle rocks at the Iberian OCT, we calculate a maximum annual uptake flux for carbon of 2–30 Tg year^?1. This is an order of magnitude greater than that for carbon exchange at the mid‐ocean ridges and 0.1–1.4% of the global oceanic uptake flux for carbon.     

CHALLENGES IN THE ANALYSIS OF HETEROGENEOUS POTTERY BY LA–ICP–MS: A COMPARISON WITH INAA*

Tempers added to pottery have the potential to obscure geographical variation in the chemistry of exploited clay resources when analysed using bulk methods. A pilot study was conducted to assess the possibility of using LA–ICP–MS to analyse clay matrix in pottery with extremely subtle partitions between INAA chemical groups. LA–ICP–MS was used to analyse the clay matrix of 32 pottery samples from seven Middle and Late Woodland period (c. ad 200–800) sites in north‐east Florida and results were compared to data from INAA of the same samples. The results reveal many of the challenges in analysing highly heterogeneous materials with LA–ICP–MS. However, the study also generated data that are potentially useful in the determination of pottery provenance. In some respects, LA–ICP–MS of clay matrix replicated the chemical variation recorded by INAA, and in other respects the results are divergent. The similarities and differences between these results are explained by specific differences between the methods and the materials analysed (matrix versus bulk analysis). Suggestions for improving the method are discussed.     

LA–ICP–MS,SEM–EDS AND EPMA ANALYSIS OF EASTERN NORTH AMERICAN COPPER‐BASED ARTEFACTS: IMPACT OF CORROSION AND HETEROGENEITY ON THE RELIABILITY OF THE LA–ICP–MS COMPOSITIONAL RESULTS*

This study discusses the relevance of compositions obtained using laser ablation – inductively coupled plasma – mass spectrometry (LA–ICP–MS) for the purpose of identifying the provenance of copper‐based artefacts found in Virginia at Native American sites dated from the 16th to the 18th centuries. Ten artefacts were investigated by scanning electron microscopy – energy dispersive spectrometry (SEM–EDS) to visualize the corrosion and characterize the heterogeneities in the metal and electron probe micro‐analysis (EPMA) to determine separately the compositions of the intact metal and of the corrosion product. It is shown that the corroded surfaces are highly depleted in zinc but that representative concentrations can be determined by sampling the deeper, uncorroded metal. In contrast, lead values are highly variable because of the heterogeneous distribution of this metal within the bulk copper. Despite these problems, brass is easily identifiable and American native copper and European smelted copper can be unambiguously distinguished with LA–ICP–MS on unprepared artefacts using As, Ag, Ni and Sb trace elements.     

Developmental Defects in the Spine: Initial Findings in Archaeological Cases from Córdoba Highlands (Argentina)

Congenital disorders are pathologies rarely found in archaeological cases. In recent years, however, there has been an increase in the number of reported cases, and a growing interest in understanding their development and implication as genetic markers within certain collections. In the central region of Argentina, researchers have begun to focus on issues related to the health of prehispanic populations from a bioarchaeological perspective. Between 1999 and 2012 our research group recovered, by rescue archaeological activities, a total number of 62 individuals from different archaeological sites in the province of Córdoba, from which only three individuals with pathologies classified as congenital were recorded (4.83%). Radiocarbon and contextual information sets these individuals in the late Holocene (2156 ± 86 and 920 ± 20 ¹⁴C years BP). Hence, this work aims at presenting two pathological conditions deriving from congenital developmental abnormalities that arise during the first three months of pregnancy: (a) Klippel–Feil syndrome (type II) which was suffered by the individuals from the sites of Guasmara and El Vado, and (b) central sagittal fissure of the vertebral body or ‘butterfly vertebra’ as in the case of one individual from La Calera. We also analyse other lesions in these skeletons that may be associated with the conditions mentioned above, and we provide a thorough interpretation from an osteobiographical perspective. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

AN 8500‐YEAR‐OLD BLADDER STONE FROM UZZO CAVE (TRAPANI): FOURIER TRANSFORM–INFRARED SPECTROSCOPY ANALYSIS*

A calcium carbonate (calcite) bladder calculus was found in the pelvis of an adult female buried in a Mesolithic cave‐tomb on the coast of Sicily; it was dated by ¹⁴ C to around 6500 bc . Its chemical composition, which was not known before, was determined by means of Fourier transform–infared microspectroscopy (FT–IR–M) using the high‐pressure diamond cell, a device that makes it possible to analyse a small amount of the sample (1–2 µg). In this way, the analysis of all the laminations of the calculus was performed without destroying the sample. Although calcite was the main component, carbonate apatite was also detected in the nucleus and in a more external layer.     

RACE AND ANIMAL‐BREEDING: A HYBRIDIZED HISTORIOGRAPHY

Because it associates animals with one of the most vital topics in human history, the historiography of the cross‐connections between race and animal‐breeding is at once controversial and inspiring. This article wishes to position this historiography in a more systematic framework than has been done thus far by examining both its merits and failings along with the more and less appropriate ways to write on the subject. The article identifies two main narratives in race–animal‐breeding historiography: the influence narrative and the projection narrative. The first reveals how perceptions of animal breeds and livestock‐breeding practices influenced the rise of racialist and eugenic worldviews. By contrast, the second shows how conceptualizations of human racial segregation contributed to the construction of ideas about the subdivision of domestic animal species into different breeds. The article argues that despite the projection narrative's inherent anthropomorphism, this perspective renders it possible to draft a nonanthropocentric history of the cross‐connections between race and animal‐breeding with a focus on human–animal relations rather than on human society.     

ARCHAEOMETRIC ANALYSES ON ‘CORINTHIAN B’ TRANSPORT AMPHORAE FOUND AT GELA (SICILY,ITALY)*

The aim of this work is to throw light on the archaic production of ‘Corinthian B’ amphorae, which are widely diffused in the Western Mediterranean basin and are also present in Greece, but whose geographical provenance is still under discussion. We analysed a group of 37 samples belonging to different ceramic classes dated to the sixth and fifth centuries bc . In particular, there were 19 sherds of trade amphorae of the so‐called archaic ‘Corinthian B’ type, from archaeological excavations in Gela (Sicily, Italy). As a comparison, we also investigated 18 samples of tiles and local coarse pottery from Sibari (Calabria, Italy). The samples were analysed using different techniques, such as optical analysis with a polarized‐light microscope (OM), X‐ray diffraction (XRD), Fourier transform–infrared absorption (FT–IR) and inductively coupled plasma–optical emission spectroscopy (ICP–OES). The combination of these complementary analytical methods allowed us to characterize the samples, determine their firing temperatures and identify the probable provenance. The study of thin sections of sherds by OM allowed us to divide the investigated amphorae into two main groups: the first was characterized by a composition that suggested a Western provenance, in particular from the Calabrian–Peloritan region; the second one was very similar to the ‘Corinthian B’ amphorae that come from Corinth and have been classified as ‘fabric class 1’ by Whitbread (1995 ). The XRD and FT–IR results permitted us to determine the mineral composition of the findings and to estimate their firing temperature. The ICP–OES technique was particularly useful in identifying the production centres. In fact, in the studied pottery, this analysis revealed Ni and Cr values that were noticeably different between Greek and southern Italian production.     

THE SEARCH FOR THE ORIGIN OF BITUMEN EXCAVATED FROM ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITES IN THE NORTHERNMOST ISLAND IN JAPAN BY MEANS OF STATISTICAL ANALYSIS OF FI–MS DATA*

The origin of bitumen excavated from archaeological sites in Hokkaido, the northernmost island in Japan, was sought by means of field‐ionization mass spectrometry (FI–MS) and gas chromatography – mass spectrometry (GC–MS) of the hydrocarbon components. The field‐ionization mass spectra were decomposed by Z‐numbers into several components, where the Z‐number refers to z in the formula C _n H _2n+z . This is equivalent to the deficit number of H atoms, when compared to the corresponding saturated hydrocarbon, which is related to the number of saturated hydrocarbon rings in alkanes. By use of the spectral intensities of the seven alkane components in each sample, multiple discriminant analysis was employed for the data of raw bitumen samples and excavated samples from archaeological sites. Based on this method and the gas chromatogram type, the following bitumen trade in the prehistoric age of Japan was elucidated: bitumen from Niigata, one of the main sources on the main island of Japan, spread to the north in 2000 bc , probably via the coastal zone, and reached a small island near the north end of Hokkaido. Bitumen from Sakhalin reached the central lowland in Hokkaido, but it went no further. Bitumen from Akita, another main source on the main island, spread over northern Honshu much earlier and reached the Oshima peninsula, the southwestern part of Hokkaido. The Akita bitumen scattered into the central lowland after the Niigata and Sakhalin bitumen. This area is believed to be the place where people from the south and the north met in those periods.     

CHARACTERIZATION OF 18TH‐CENTURY MEISSEN PORCELAIN USING SEM–EDS*

Analytical investigations of fragmented Meissen porcelains well dated to between 1725 and 1763 have been carried out using SEM–EDS. The aim of the analysis was to characterize elements in bodies, glazes and overglaze enamels in order to create a baseline data set of materials used in the manufacture of porcelain at the Meissen factory, Saxony, during the 18th century. Analyses indicate body and glaze compositions to be consistent with a post c.1720–30 date, when a change from a lime‐rich flux to a potassium‐rich flux is documented to have occurred. Overglaze enamel compositions are shown to be consistent with contemporary accounts of enamel preparations at Meissen. Overglaze enamel compositions show that mixtures of pigments, in addition to documented enamel 18th‐century preparations, were in use at Meissen between c. 1725 and 1763.     

THE TRADING OF ANCIENT GLASS BEADS: NEW ANALYTICAL DATA FROM SOUTH ASIAN AND EAST AFRICAN SODA–ALUMINA GLASS BEADS*

The occurrence of similar glass beads at archaeological sites in Africa and Asia bears witness to the trade relationship between the two continents. This paper reports elemental analysis results from a recent in‐depth laser ablation – inductively coupled plasma – mass spectrometry (LA–ICP–MS) study of a group of archaeological glass beads with a specific alumina‐rich composition from East Africa, India and Sri Lanka. Based on the concentrations of the trace elements, two different subgroups were identified. One subgroup occurs at early periods (fourth century bce to fifth century ace ) in South India and Sri Lanka. The second subgroup appears at later dates in Africa and was identified at different Kenyan sites dated from the ninth to the 19th century ace , and at the contemporaneous site of Chaul in western India.     

Geochemical Characterization of Lapita Pottery Via Inductively Coupled Plasma–mass Spectrometry (ICP–MS)

We have obtained high‐resolution elemental data on Lapita ceramics (3200–2700 cal year bp ) from Fiji, Tonga and New Ireland using chemistry‐based inductively coupled plasma–mass spectrometry (ICP–MS). These data show clear elemental distinctions between Lapita pottery manufactured in Fiji, Tonga and New Ireland, and demonstrate significant elemental variation in Fijian ceramics collected from settlements in close proximity to one another. Therefore, we anticipate that ICP–MS will become an effective technique for tracking the transfer of Lapita pottery within and between different island groups in Oceania.     

INCISED SLIPWARE PRODUCTION AT CASTELFIORENTINO (FLORENCE): THE ‘VIA BERTINI’ SITE (15TH–17TH CENTURIES)*

This study deals with the physical–chemical and mineralogical–petrographic investigations (OM, SEM–EDS, EPMA, ICP, XRpD, Mössbauer and IR) conducted on first‐ and second‐firing wasters belonging to two types of incised slipware (sgraffito), manufactured at Castelfiorentino between the late 15th and the early 17th centuries. Raw materials, colouring agents and firing products were analysed in order to establish the production technology of the ceramic coatings, by means of detailed microtextural and chemical investigations. The pottery underwent two firing processes: the firing of the white slip‐coated ceramic body and a further firing after application of the glaze. The homogeneity of the raw materials, white slip and glaze is remarkable, and demonstrates the use of well‐established recipes with a constant supply of raw materials from the same places. Highly efficient kiln management during both firings is revealed by body–glaze interface reactions.     

COMPOSITION PROFILES AND TIME EVOLUTION OF BURIED MARBLE PATINAS BY LA–ICP–MS AND LASER‐INDUCED MICRO‐PHOTO‐LUMINESCENCE

The present work aims to study surface composition profiles on buried marbles as well as their time evolution. Fifty samples from gravestones, buried for up to 80 years, were analysed by laser‐induced photoluminescence and LA–ICP–MS. The results include profiles of ²⁵Mg, ²⁷Al, ⁵⁵Mn, ⁵⁷Fe, ⁸⁸Sr and organic complexes of calcium, existing in the marble patina. The depth at which ⁸⁸Sr reaches its bulk value proved to be the best parameter to measure patina thickness. A diffusion model adopted from dissolution studies made on gravestones exposed to the atmosphere was successfully applied to the patina thickness data. The model fails to predict patina thicknesses for ancient excavated objects. However, it seems that ‘Sr alteration depth’ values alone can be used for discriminating ancient from recently buried surfaces.     

An Examination of the Spatial–Temporal Isolation Model in a Nilotic Population: Variation across Space and Time in Nubians Using Cranial Discrete Traits

Nubian biological evolution has come under much scrutiny in preceding years with strong opinions dividing scholars' beliefs as to how it occurred. A new approach is necessary to elucidate subtleties of their population structure in order to shed light on the complex subject. This study employs a spatial–temporal model in an effort to test if in situ biological evolution was the mechanism for biological change. Biological distance was calculated from the phenotype using 20 cranial discrete traits observed in Nubian samples from the sites of Semna South, Kerma, and the islands of Hesa and Biga. The periods represented at Semna South are Meroitic, X‐Group and Christian, whereas the Kerma site yielded skeletal material from the Kerma period, and the islands of Hesa and Biga date to the Christian period. Mahalanobis D² with a tetrachoric matrix was used to calculate biological distances among the samples, and three‐way Mantel tests were applied to the distance, spatial and temporal matrices. Time was not significantly correlated with biological distance. However, an inverse relationship of time and biological distance is expected under the spatial–temporal model. A lack of significant geographic correlations, as found here, is unusual in most populations, but given the spatial construct of the sites along the Nile, this relationship is not completely unexpected. The lack of significant correlation among time, space and biological distance does not support the in situ hypothesis. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

STAINING OF ARCHAEOLOGICAL GLASS FROM MANGANESE‐RICH ENVIRONMENTS*

It has been suggested that both internal and external sources of manganese may produce the black or brown staining that often occurs in buried archaeological glass. Modern potash glass of a manganese‐free medieval composition was scratched, etched and immersed in an aqueous solution containing dissolved manganese. After several weeks, immersion samples were sectioned and examined by SEM–EDX. Manganese was shown to be present in fissures and cracks within in the glass, where alkali had been depleted. Manganese from an external source is capable of blackening buried medieval potash glass.     

„On employera les meilleurs Graveurs pour les Figures”︁. Zeichner und Stecher der Berliner Akademie der Wissenschaften, 1700–1806

“We will employ the best engravers for the figures” – Draughtsmen and Engravers of the Berlin Academy of Sciences, 1700–1809. – Although barely mentioned in accounts of its history of the Berlin Academy of Sciences, draughtsmen and engravers were, from the very inception, essential collaborators. Based on previously overlooked archival sources, this paper investigates the strategies that scientists used to select the most appropriate candidates during the first hundred years of the academy's existence. These included: (1) the engaging of artists already known to the scientists or those who had been recommendaded to them; (2) maintaining long‐term relationships with a number of artists, and later with their offspring (who had frequently been trained by their fathers); in 1768 this strategy culminated in the creation of a permanent position for one academic draughtsman; and (3) hiring draughtsmen who specialised in the subject matter in question, which entailed, for example, employing different people to carry out anatomical and botanical illustrations.     

THE USE OF TRACE ELEMENT ANALYSIS OF ENTRAPPED SLAG INCLUSIONS TO ESTABLISH ORE – BAR IRON LINKS: EXAMPLES FROM TWO GALLO‐ROMAN IRON‐MAKING SITES IN FRANCE (LES MARTYS,MONTAGNE NOIRE,AND LES FERRYS,LOIRET)*

Knowledge of the iron trade in ancient times rests on determining the source of the objects recovered during archaeological excavations. Unfortunately, attributing the origin is not always possible using archaeological tools alone. Trace element data of the ore and the archaeological material (reduction and reheating slags, entrapped slag inclusions from the bloom, bar iron and iron blades) from two Gallo‐Roman iron‐making centres, Les Martys (Montagne Noire) and Les Ferrys (Loiret), were determined using ICP–AES/MS and LA–ICP–MS. The results highlight a continuity of composition that makes it possible to establish a link between the initial ore and the semi‐finished iron products.