浅析中世纪英格兰农奴制衰落

本文分析中世纪英格兰农奴制衰落,首先提及英格兰农奴制存在状态,农奴是不自由群体,农奴制是束缚农奴的枷锁,农奴们终要冲破藩篱走向自由。12世纪末期开始,农奴摆脱农奴制的斗争经常发生。本文从以下方面分析英格兰农奴制衰落:自由地权发展、人口流动、租赁地权、公簿持有制,不动产权。     

英格兰骑士役保有制的演变及其废除

骑士役保有制是西欧中世纪封建制度中最主要、最典型的封建土地保有制度。在该制度下,封君与封臣对同一块骑士领都有各自的土地权利,并且他们各自的权利都受到法律的保护。在几个世纪的发展中,骑士领的实际占有者骑士役封臣逐步获得了土地的继承权、转让权与大部分的自由处置权,对骑士领的土地权利逐渐向私有权靠近;同时,保有骑士领的阶层也在不断扩大,他们对土地私有化的需求与行动力在持续增强。在英格兰内战爆发初期,骑士役保有制终于被彻底废除,私人土地产权得以在英格兰初步确立。     

论中世纪英格兰东南地区港口城市的兴盛

英格兰东南地区城市从中世纪以来就是英格兰经济、政治、文化的中心,特别是港口城市在本地区的发展中的地位举足轻重。本文根据当前国内外研究相关成果,对中世纪英格兰东南地区港口城市的发展原因进行了探讨。     

中世纪晚期英格兰市民资格的变革与社会流动

市民是中世纪社会的特殊群体,只有具备相应资格、达到相关标准才能成为市民。通过市民注册登记簿可知,在中世纪晚期的英格兰,市民资格主要有三:即继承而来的身份资质、服役7年的学徒资质与购买而来的货币资质。相较于十一二世纪单一化的市民资格,中世纪晚期的英格兰市民资格明显扩大。市民资格的变革,使中世纪晚期的英格兰城市变得更为开放,推动了英格兰的社会流动。这一变革对英格兰社会在中世纪晚期的结构转型乃至从封建主义向资本主义的过渡都有重要的历史意义。     

英国学者关于英格兰教会的最新评估

在20世纪的最后几十年,"修正主义"学者就宗教改革前英格兰教会提出了新的解读模式,如今,这一模式已经被研究英国宗教改革的史学家普遍接受。然而,中世纪史家的新近研究成果使得宗教改革之前英格兰教会的整体图景发生了进一步的变化,而这些变化并不能很好地融入修正主义者建构的解读模式。从分析两部修正主义者关于中世纪晚期英格兰教会的重要著作入手,考察并评述这些新近出现的变化——包括对英格兰修会、罗拉德派的研究以及对中世纪晚期英格兰教会改革可能性的探讨,则可看出这些新变化意味着英格兰宗教改革的起源史,仍然未有定论。     

论中世纪英格兰东南地区港口城市的兴盛

英格兰东南地区城市从中世纪以来就是英格兰经济、政治、文化的中心,特别是港口城市在本地区的发展中的地位举足轻重．本文根据当前国内外研究相关成果．对中世纪英格兰东南地区港口城市的发展原因进行了探讨。     

前工业社会中的城市市场结构与市场导向的商业化

市场和商业化是中国和英格兰等许多前工业社会的常见现象 ,但在中国 ,农村市场结构和自给型商业化长期处于主导地位 ,没有像英格兰那样在中世纪晚期和现代早期转变为城市市场结构和市场导向的商业化。市场结构的性质对两国早期现代化过程中商业化的发展路径 ,提供了截然不同的体制性角色     

中世纪英格兰劳工法令的颁布、执行及其影响

面对黑死病流行之后的人口危机,英格兰议会多次颁布劳工法令,试图限制劳动力流动和劳动力价格上涨。研究中世纪英格兰的劳工法令,对于了解当时英格兰王室应对危机的方式,进而理解中世纪晚期英格兰的经济社会具有重要意义。当前学界的关注点主要集中在劳工法令的效果上,对法令本身缺乏足够研究。本文通过研究指出,中世纪英格兰劳工法令在颁布之初得到严格执行,并有效遏制了劳动力价格上涨。另外,在民族国家形成过程中,劳工法令是英格兰王室政府协调利益集团关系和干预经济社会生活的有力工具。     

杜能的经济圈境理论与中世纪英格兰领主经济

在中世纪英格兰经济史研究领域最近形成了一种商业化理论。他们以冯.杜能的经济圈境理论为基础,认为城市需求是促进乡村经济发展的决定性力量,距离城市越近,农业的商品化程度越高。但是,中世纪英格兰领主自营地经济的商品化与这种理论多有出入。这是因为中世纪英格兰的经济实际并不符合冯.杜能理论中隐含着的前提条件。商业化派将冯.杜能的理论用于研究中世纪经济存在时代错位的问题。     

工业化早期英国西部毛纺业的兴衰

英格兰西部诸郡是14至16世纪英国毛纺业的主要生产中心,是英国出口的宽幅优质呢绒的主要产地。西部毛纺业主要是乡村毛纺业。在西部毛纺业中,还较早出现了包买商制度和集中手工工场这些新的生产组织。然而,这个英国“原工业化”的先锋在迈向工业革命的进程中却失败了。由于羊毛供应不足和羊毛质量变差,以及东部地区新呢绒工业的竞争,西部毛纺业从17世纪后期开始走向衰落。它没有引导西部继续向工业化挺进,也未能根据形势变化而转变发展方向、找到新的经济生长点。这个中世纪晚期英格兰最富裕的地区之一,从18世纪起却成为英格兰最不富裕的地区之一。英国西部毛纺业的跌宕命运,值得我们对“原工业化”论题作多向度反思。     

The Dor 2001/1 Shipwreck, Israel—a Summary of the Excavation

Dor 2001/1 was probably a Byzantine coaster carrying building stones, dated to the end of the 5th or beginning of the 6th century AD. No shell-first construction features were identified, specifically no kind of planking edge-joints; but instead all the essential components showed that it was a frame-based hull. Thus it is apparently among the earliest frame-based shipwrecks found so far in the Mediterranean.
© 2006 The Authors     

The Equity and Legitimacy of Markets for Ecosystem Services

Markets for ecosystem services are being promoted across the developing world, amidst claims that the provision of economic incentives is vital to bring about resource conservation. This article argues that equity and legitimacy are also critical dimensions in the design and implementation of such markets, if social development goals beyond economic gains are to be achieved. The article examines this issue by focusing on two communities involved in a project for carbon sequestration services of forests in the state of Chiapas, Mexico. The perceived legitimacy of the activities and the distribution of economic outcomes and project‐related information are found to be mediated by organizational allegiances and the history of social relations regarding access to property and forest resources. Political affiliation determines the project's legitimacy, while the poorest farmers and women have been excluded from project design and implementation. The authors argue that pitfalls such as these contribute to reinforcing existing power structures, inequities and vulnerabilities, and suggest that this is a product of the nature of emerging markets. Markets for ecosystem services are, in effect, limited in promoting more legitimate forms of decision making and a more equitable distribution of their outcomes.     

二十世纪初东南亚华侨中介商经济地位新探

中介商是近代东南亚华侨的重要经济力量。在 2 0世纪初 ,东南亚各地区华侨中介商的经济实力是不一样的 ,由于受西方殖民统治者的压迫 ,以及当地土著居民经济状况的制约 ,华侨中介商所处的经济地位是被动的 ,他们的经济发展是不稳定的。     

Services sector in India: trends,issues, and the way forward

This paper provides an overview of the Indian services sector. It shows that services is the fastest growing sector in India, contributing significantly to gross domestic product (GDP), GDP growth, employment, trade, and investment. India is a major proponent of liberalizing services both in the World Trade Organization and in its bilateral trade agreements. However, there are some concerns. In the recent past, economic growth and growth of the services sector has slowed down. Growth in employment in services has not been commensurate with the share of the sector in GDP. Although India is a major exporter of services, its export competitiveness concentrates in few sectors and a few markets. The paper identifies a number of barriers faced by the services sectors and suggests policy measures which, if implemented, will lead to inclusive growth, increased productivity, generate quality employment, increase trade and investment, and enhance India’s global competitiveness in services.     

Urban concentration and labour market linkages in the Norwegian ICT services sector

Building on research that emphasizes the dependence of services firms on the networks and experiences of individual employees, this paper investigates the urban concentration of information and communication technology services employment in Norway from the perspective of labour market linkages. It finds that urban regions generally provide firms with access to sector-specific expertise. Beyond this, intrinsic region characteristics determine the position of individual firms in national labour markets for expertise: Firms in the dominant university town have strong contact points to academic labour markets, whereas firms in the industrial stronghold of the Western Capital region exploit a broader range of recruitment channels than firms in any of the other urban and non-urban locations. The results illustrate how capability building through recruitment is influenced by local conditions, and imply that the industry will continue to concentrate in the large-city regions where surrounding organizations provide firms with priveliged access to expertise. Implications for research, innovation policy and societal development more generally are drawn.     

Carrier routes in the Northeast of Scotland 1803–1914: Development and change in a service

During the first four decades of the 19th century carrier services in the northeast of Scotland developed rapidly. Most were centred on Aberdeen, the main city and port of the region, but local networks also existed, focused on other towns in the region. Improved road facilities throughout the region, particularly those formed by turnpike trusts, enabled an increasing number of locations to be served in this way. The rapid economic development that took place in the area at this time led to, and was fostered by, an increasing frequency of service.. The arrival of the railway in the region in the middle of the 19th century, and its gradual extension north and west of Aberdeen, had a major effect on the road‐based carrier network. Long‐distance routes centred on Aberdeen declined rapidly, there was rationalisation within the services provided, new services grew up centred on railway facilities, and the number of short‐distance carriers increased. The flexibility inherent in carrier services, however, ensured that they continued to remain relevant to customers in the 20th century.     

Crying on Lombard Street: fixing sovereign defaults in the 1890s

The wave of sovereign defaults in the 1890s was one of the worst ever remembered in the history of finance. From Argentina in 1890 to Brazil in 1898, countries in Latin America and Southern Europe defaulted on their external debt, inflicting investors with huge losses. However, this was the last cluster of defaults of the gold standard era. At the beginning of the 20th century and until the outbreak of World War I, defaults were less frequent despite the continuous increase in foreign government borrowing. The literature has provided several explanations on this apparent success all relative to improvements introduced in the market. This paper argues that the fall in the number of defaults is more related to a more favorable world macroeconomic environment and to an increased liquidity available in international financial markets than to an abrupt shift in the manner in which defaults were handled. I show that settlements were more correlated with the relative facility to re-access foreign capital markets than to changes in the financial architecture.     

Trade Liberalization and Prudential Regulation: The International Framework for Financial Services

This article provides an overview of the issues involved in international efforts to open and restructure markets for financial services and to ensure adequate regulation and supervision of financial firms. It discusses the liberalization in the General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS), the first global trade agreement to cover financial and other services, and the roles of various international fora in strengthening national regulatory and supervisory systems and enhancing cooperation and coordination between supervisors. The article emphasizes that measures to liberalize trade in financial services and measures to strengthen prudential regulation and supervision are complementary and mutually reinforcing.     

‘Milking The Elephant’: Financial Markets as Real Markets in Kenya

Financial liberalization policies in the 1990s were intended to raise formal sector interest rates, enhance competition and expand access for users. This article investigates patterns of provision and use in a local financial market in Karatina, Kenya, at the end of the 1990s after a period of financial and economic liberalization. It takes a holistic approach, examining both formal and informal financial arrangements and microfinance interventions. This is because the role of the informal financial sector is particularly important for poor people and has received relatively little attention in the discussion of the consequences of reform. The author does this using a ‘real’ markets approach that sees markets as socially regulated and structured. Significant provision by the mutual sector (formal and informal), and poor lending performance by the banking sector is explained through an examination of the characteristics of the services on offer and their embeddedness in social relations, culture and politics.